Egypt - Context and Land Governance

^{Agriculture Valley in Egypt Desert Oasis photo by Darla دارلا Hueske,Flickr,license CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 DEED}

Egypt’s ongoing population growth is problematic given the country’s density which is concentrated in only 8% of the total area (ca. 1 million km2). Around 29.7 million people live below the national poverty line, despite comprehensive government social protection programmes. Egypt currently hosts more than 9 million migrants of different nationalities mostly residing in informal urban settlements.³ The urban centers continue to struggle⁴ creating a serious demand for land.⁵

Agriculture is a major component of the economy in Egypt, it represents around 11.5% of the GDP (2017).⁶ Egypt counts as one of the largest agriculture markets in the ‘Middle East and North Africa’ MENA region with revenues of about 36 billion USD from the agribusiness sector in 2016.⁷ Land fragmentation holdings into small spots limits the economy of scale and reduces efficiency. The Nile River provides about 96% of Egypt’s water and around 80% of Egypt’s water contributes to agriculture.⁸ Also, groundwater is rising in importance as a source of irrigation. Water scarcity heightens competition for limited resources, crucial for agriculture and urban growth along the Nile. Climate change exacerbates environmental pressures and risks, affecting agricultural productivity and land use planning. Balancing these challenges requires integrated land governance strategies to ensure sustainable land use, water management, and energy development amidst socio-economic complexities in Egypt.⁹ Coastal zones are expected to suffer from direct climate change impacts (UNFCCC 2014) due to the rise of sea-levels¹⁰ .

Historical backdrop

Land tenure regulations in Egypt have evolved from different historical periods: the Ottoman era, the British colonial period, and the Nasser revolution of 1952. Islamic laws influence the cultural context of land tenure, shaping traditional practices and legal frameworks.¹¹ In 1808, Muhammad Ali enacted land reforms that affected the holdings of the Mamluks who dominated much of the country and controlled Egypt's agricultural land and revenues. In 1815, Muhammad Ali became the sole owner of the land, including a monopoly on trading in crops.¹² In 1814, unlike before, farmers paid taxes directly to the state. Allotted land was made in private hands.¹³ Muhammad Ali distributed large tracts of land. When he retired, substantial land grants were made to his relatives. The Khedive and his family, who were originally Turkish, Albanian and Kurdish, were the main landowners, owning large personal estates in addition to the state lands.¹⁴

The French played a major role in Muhammad Ali’s reforms of 1875, Egypt was bound by the capitulations, the Western and European residents in Egypt were exempt from local taxation and were subject to mixed courts. Later in 1882, a dual control was reinstated and European rule was reaffirmed.¹⁵ Agricultural development was accelerated and the old irrigation canals were restored, increasing the irrigated area by 100.000 feddans to 3 million feddans in 1883.¹⁶

The agrarian reforms after the Nasser revolution in 1952 were based on setting a maximum ceiling on land ownership and distributing land to about 350,000 families between 1952 and 1970.¹⁷ In 1974, a law was issued to restore large land holdings to the landlords, and the private property market began to grow robustly. By 1975, less than one-eighth of the total cultivated area was held by 50-acre owners. The reforms introduced rules to protect tenant farmers, and landlords who sold their land for non-agricultural purposes were required to pay half the sale price to tenants. The reform succeeded in registering transferred property rights and rent control as long-term secure tenancy rights for poor households.¹⁸

By World War I, the Ottomans had achieved limited registration, while the colonial regimes replaced the Ottoman administration's registration with semi-communal property systems that increased sharecropping in cultivated areas. This led to a concentration of land ownership among the local elite and European settlers. 11.5% of agricultural land was under the control of European land corporations.¹⁹

After independence, the Nasser-era land reform, known as 'Iqta', had strengthened industrial capitalism among the peasant landowners, reducing their economic and political power under the guise of social justice.²⁰ A legal framework for the property registration system in Egypt was established by the Deeds and Titles Registration Law.²¹

In 1992, Law No. 96 reversed the key provisions of the 30-year-old tenancy reform, which had ensured long-term security of tenure and low land rents, by allowing rents to rise and giving landlords the right to evict tenants. The government justified this by the need to increase the efficiency of agricultural production and attributed the stagnation of the agricultural sector to the fragmentation of smallholdings.²²

Land legislation and regulations

The Egyptian constitution of 2014 protects property and private ownership. The right of inheritance is guaranteed. Article 78 of the constitution expands the right to housing to include quality and safety. The state is held accountable for drafting a housing plan. The right of housing in previous constitutions as in 2012, Article 68, has been criticized for not defining the adequacy of housing and not clearly stating which entities are responsible for the fulfillment of housing rights.²³

The Civil Code, Law No. 131 of 1948, defines real estate including ownership rights and court proceedings.²⁴ Articles in this code established a general framework for real estate lending that is governed by the Real Estate Finance Law No. 148 of 2001.

Since the 1952 revolution, Egypt has undergone numerous land reforms. The agrarian reform laws of 1952 regarding the land tenure system had distributed holdings to individuals. The legislation enacted aimed to limit individual ownership of land, allowing no more than 200 feddans per person. According to Law No. 50 of 1969, agricultural holdings cannot exceed 50 feddans - about 21 hectares.²⁵ In the 1970s, further reform was introduced that reduced the gains made by smallholders and tenants. About 9% of the rural population received distributed land, which accounted for around 12.5 percent of the cultivated area.²⁶

In 1992, law 96 revoked the 1952 agrarian reform, however it was fully implemented until 1997, allowing the rights of inheritance to land. Meanwhile, rents increased from 7 to 22 times the land tax, leading to disputes over land and large-scale evictions of farmers.²⁷ The Urban Planning Law No. 3 of 1981, prohibits the division and trading of part of a land parcel until the decision authorizing the division has been registered in the real estate registry.²⁸ By law, it is prohibited to modify or restore any existing building on agricultural land without a license under Reorganization of Construction Work Law No. 106 of 1976. The approval of such alteration requires the oversight of a committee established by a joint decision of the Minister of Housing and the Minister of Agriculture and Land Reclamation.²⁹

Land tenure classifications

The tenure system in Egypt is predominantly based on a collective ownership framework, where heirs own shares of property called 'shuyu'. This collective tenure model is prevalent among families, with multiple heirs inheriting portions of property. The informal tenure sector includes settlements on both agricultural and desert land, where land rights may be informally recognised but lack formal documentation or legal recognition. This informal arrangement reflects traditional practices and informal land tenure systems prevalent in different regions of Egypt.³⁰

There are three forms of agricultural land tenure in Egypt: ownership, leasehold and mixed tenure, where the owner is one part of the landholding and the tenant is the other part, with user rights only.³¹

There are five main formal land tenure types in Egypt:³² 

• Public ownership: state land that is governed by the governorate land includes desert and unclaimed lands: or any public land that serves public utility
•  Publicly leased land: it is land owned by the state and leased on a long-term basis. Rights can be converted to ownership after a specific period
•  Private ownership: is freehold land that is officially registered in local districts, however the unregistered land is considered informal tenure. Agricultural landholdings are
•  Trust land ‘waqf’: is land set aside from the state for charitable purposes and administered from a specialized Ministry. It cannot be sold or mortgaged. 
• Encroachment ‘wad al yad’: is land that had been occupied continuously for at least 15 years securing its ownership without the owner asserting rights according to the Civil Code.

Currently, land ownership is divided into three main forms: public land, private land and waqf land, which is an endowment for charitable purposes. Public lands include unregistered and communal lands, including customary lands such as those allocated to Bedouin tribes in desert areas. While private lands are those that are expected to be registered by individuals according to the following;³³

•  Deed Law 114 of 1946 (al‑sigil al‑shukhsi): is the older registration system that operates in urban areas, a notary system based on individual ownership; *
• Title law 142 of 1946 (al‑sigil al‑‘aini): a property-based authoritative record of ownership that is only implemented in rural areas unlike the deed system.³⁴

The 'shufa' tradition has been recognised in the Civil Code, which codifies traditional land ownership rights. It gives the neighboring landowner the right of refusal when selling a plot of land, in order to encourage land consolidation.³⁵ The lack of housing has been a major driver of the expansion of informal settlements, which usually start with a small core and then expand as developers wall off larger plots on the outskirts of the core, which are subdivided and sold. Residents derived their customary rights to their land and housing from the Civil Code's provisions on the establishment of hand claims. They have compiled documents to support their claims, such as utility bills. These claims are established by a legal owner and don't usually have a complex history of transactions, subdivisions and inheritance.³⁶

Customary land rights in Egypt are officially recognised by law, although claims by individuals rather than tribes were recognised. Practical implementation mainly affects Bedouins and others who reclaimed land along the north-west coast and claimed control in the absence of formal deeds. The enactment of Desert Law No. 124 in 1958 removed legal recognition of customary rights and favored cadastral registration of titled land. In 1964, Law No. 100 allowed the recognition of customary titles. In 1969, the State nationalized unregistered land and made it available for sale or lease to individuals or companies. Subsequently, in 1981, the law recognised customary claims to nationalized land.³⁷

The title registration system is not implemented in urban areas as Law 142/1964 does not permit a building to be registered as a real estate unit. It is also affected by the high administrative costs of registration, resulting in low rates of registered parcels, which is due to poorly developed municipal finance policies.³⁸ The law governing the deed system is an obstacle to the efficient processing of transactions. The current process of formal and leasehold registration is time-consuming and costly, which leads most people to forgo the legal registration process in favor of an informal registration process.³⁹

The local government system tends to be centralized, with a lack of coordination between different government organizations. The Local People's Council (LPC) is the highest government body responsible for the overall development of urban communities, including the formulation of upgrading development plans. However, the local government only has an implementing role within the allocated budget for administration, rather than a decision-making role.⁴⁰

Property ownership varies according to the allocation of land; either desert, reclamation or agricultural, which determines the relevant law that should apply.⁴¹Registration is mandatory to ensure the validity of the title to real estate and its enforceability against third parties. Registration is governed by the Egyptian Civil Law No. 131 of 1948 and the Real Estate Registration Law No. 114 of 1946, recently amended by Law No. 9 of 2022.⁴² Amendments to the law are aimed at eliminating complicated procedures, reducing registration fees and simplifying the overall process. The payment of the real estate excise tax has been separated from the registration procedures, and the requirement to provide evidence of the property chain of custody has been eliminated. In addition, the maximum registration period is reduced to 37 days instead of 2 years under the old law.⁴³

Land administration

The history of land tenure in Egypt reflects a dynamic interplay of administrative, legal, and cultural influences. Dating back to the Ottoman era. In 1813, the finance minister conducted an official survey to divide arable lands into taxable segments, creating administrative districts and provinces that formed the basis of taxation at the time.⁴⁴ The British colonial period further shaped land management. From 1897 till 1920s, most rural land was surveyed and mapped and a cadastral mapping was carried out to most urban properties in Cairo through 1940. Upon independence, a legal framework governed the property registration system.⁴⁵ The Ministry of Justice (MOJ)⁴⁶ manages property registrations through its offices located throughout Egypt (al-Shahr al‑‘Aqari). The Egyptian Survey Authority (ESA)⁴⁷ carries out the surveying and inspection of properties and maintains the cadastral mapping system.

During Ottoman rule, various land tenure systems emerged, reflecting Islamic property laws and encompassing diverse categories, called 'Mulk', including state-owned 'Raqabah' and farmer-owned 'Tasarruf'. Agricultural land owned by the Amir is called 'Miri' or 'Amiri' and is often farmed communally as 'Musha'. Wakf' means land set aside in perpetuity for charitable purposes. Publicly accessible land, 'Mawat', subject to the Ottoman land code of 'Shari'ah', offers rights acquisition through donation ('Iqta') or land reclamation ('Ihya al-Mawat'). These systems outlined rights acquisition through inheritance, purchase, marriage or charitable purposes, illustrating the complex tenure landscape of historical Egypt.⁴⁸

Despite advancements, challenges persist, particularly in the agricultural sector. Fragmentation of farms hinders the competitiveness of the Egyptian agricultural sector in global markets due to the low productivity of smallholder farmers. Agricultural land remains a focal point of conflict to date due to the failure of small land acquisitions and the chains of construction that violate agricultural lands.⁴⁹ In 2008, the ‘Informal Settlement Development Facility’ ISDF was ratified according to presidential decree No. 305 for 2008, later recognized as ‘Urban Development fund’ UDF in 2012, which aims to upgrade informal areas that are classified as unsafe areas and unplanned areas.⁵⁰

In property transactions, adherence to Islamic Sharia principles guides agreements and inheritance rights, while legislative changes strive to streamline registration processes. The Civil Code and Law 114 of 1946 stipulate that purchase agreements must be registered with a state notary to be valid. However, many property and land transactions remain unregistered due to high fees. Under unregistered agreements, purchasers possess personal contractual rights rather than title. Recent legislative changes are intended to regulate the real estate market and encourage investment, including amendments to reduce registration fees and provide incentives for purchasers to register their title and formalize their ownership rights.⁵¹ Despite these efforts, Informal property transfers continue to prevail in both formal and informal areas.⁵²

In modern times, Egypt has embarked on comprehensive land registration projects. The 'Land Registration System Project', was initiated in 2006 through a cooperation protocol between the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (MCIT) and the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation. This project was implemented in three phases, aimed to streamline ownership documentation and cadastral mapping and to make the registration of land ownership more comprehensive.⁵³ It includes the automation of databases containing maps and documents closely linked to geographic information. The Information Center for Registration at the Ministry of Justice ensures the integration and management of registration data. Furthermore, the project works closely with registry offices, which are instrumental in facilitating the registration process and maintaining accurate records.⁵⁴ In addition, the project is closely aligned with the operations of the Cadastral Mapping Center of the ‘Egyptian Surveying Authority’ (ESA), which has developed a national database of real estate projects as an integrated geographic information system in new urban communities through an inventory for the development of real estate wealth in Egypt.⁵⁵ In 2023, the Egyptian Cabinet approved the draft law on the unified national real estate database linked to the codes for a unified base map including a unified coding number for units, buildings and land within a secure environment of the Spatial Information System Egypt’s Vision 2030, which aims to achieve economic growth based on digital transformation.⁵⁶

Regarding housing initiatives, Egypt launched the Social Housing Fund (SHF) program in partnership with the World Bank through the comprehensive Housing Finance Program-for-Results (PforR). It aims to address the housing gap and provide affordable housing to 1 million low-income households through a mortgage finance fund.⁵⁷ The main key results associated with this project are mainly for strengthening the governance and institutional housing sector by promoting private sector participation in low-income housing while enhancing transparency and accountability of social housing programs.⁵⁸

Data collection remains a crucial aspect of land tenure management, with centralized systems compiling statistics and analysis. The Department of National Accounts (DNA) operates within the Ministry of Planning (MOP) s to compile comprehensive national accounts statistics. In parallel, the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS), established by Presidential Decree No. 2915 in 1964, works with governmental agencies to provide reliable statistics on social, economic, and environmental conditions. The National Accounts Division (NAD) of CAPMAS conducts key income and expenditure surveys, including housing tenure and ownership. However, achieving a comprehensive statistical framework is an ongoing challenge for Egypt's data collection efforts.⁵⁹ National statistics on tenure security rates are notably lacking. Data limitations persist, particularly in formal construction datasets, which rely on building permits issued. Data on informal construction remains underestimated, with datasets focusing primarily on primary tenure, leaving out households squatting on state land or secondary tenure arrangements. As a result, a comprehensive understanding of tenure security rates is hampered by incomplete data sets, highlighting the need for improved data collection methods to capture the full range of land tenure arrangements across the country.⁶⁰

Prindex data underscores the importance of formal documentation in land tenure security, yet alternative mechanisms also contribute to a sense of security among undocumented individuals. According to Prindex, 88% of people with documentation feel secure in their land tenure, while about 70% of those without documentation also report feeling secure. This suggests that alternative mechanisms for securing land tenure in the absence of formal registration are effectively compensating, likely as formal arrangements.⁶¹

Land use trends

Egypt's agricultural land is mainly divided into two regions: the Nile Valley, which accounts for 80% of the cultivated area, and the Nile Delta, which accounts for 20% of the cultivated area. The total area of cultivated land is about 3.5 million hectares.⁶² Although agricultural land accounted for less than 4% of the total land area in 2005, Egypt has nearly 3.5 million hectares of arable land, 100% of which is irrigated.⁶³ Agriculture accounts for more than 80% of the country's water needs. However, a significant gap between water demand and supply is expected to reach 20 billion cubic meters by 2037.⁶⁴

 _{Fig. (1) Sources of demand for water in Egypt, World Bank 2020}⁶⁵

Egypt is a water-scarce country. According to the UN, Egypt may reach the level of absolute scarcity of less than 500 cubic meters per capita. The Nile River is the main source of water, providing about 55.5 billion cubic meters per year.⁶⁶ In response, the government has pursued a national policy of reclaiming desert land for agricultural production and settlement, while currently, the Ethiopian Renaissance Dam is affecting the available water supply flowing to Egypt which is challenging the completion of land reclamation projects.⁶⁷ In addition, the potential impacts of climate change are predicted to reduce food crop yields by 10% by 2050 due to heat and water stress.⁶⁸ Unsustainable farming practices also contribute significantly to climate change, as farmers pay only for the operating and maintenance costs of irrigation water, which does not account for environmental externalities. Another emerging signal of change in the Delta is seawater intrusion due to rising sea levels and increased CO2 levels .⁶⁹

Land investments

Agribusinesses face challenges in maintaining productivity levels. Land ownership is fragmented, with 85% of farms averaging 1.5 feddans, and water efficiency is low as agriculture consumes 82% of the country's water resources.⁷⁰ The Egyptian government is considering engaging the private sector to address the demand-supply gap by investing in alternative sources of water supply, such as expanding desalination, reusing treated water, and increasing groundwater use. This includes expanding the construction of wastewater treatment plants for irrigation water use.⁷¹

CAPMAS serves as Egypt's national statistical agency. However, data transparency and open access in Egypt is limited. According to the most recent Open Data Inventory (ODIN) for 2022, Egypt ranked 130th out of 190 countries. It scored 53 out of 100 for data availability, but 31 out of 100 for openness. This suggests that while Egypt has made progress in data openness, access to comprehensive data remains limited, highlighting areas for improvement in data transparency and accessibility.⁷²

Within the ‘Agricultural Development Strategy 2003’,⁷³ the ‘National Project for Reclamation and Cultivation’ in 2015 aims to achieve a comprehensive agro-industrial development for one and half million feddans.⁷⁴ In 2018, The Ministry of Environment commenced the ‘Climate Change Interactive Vulnerability Map’ as a key tool for multiple data sources in the agriculture sector. The first version of the map application was launched in 2021.⁷⁵ In 2019-2022, the European Commission (EC) collaborated with the ‘Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation’ MWRI and multiple Egyptian authorities to initiate the ‘Fostering Reforms in the Egyptian Renewable Energy and Water Sectors through developing capacity building project’.⁷⁶ These efforts support ongoing reform efforts in the water sector, with the aim of realizing the objectives outlined in the National Water Resources Plan 2017-2037. The ‘Ministry of Agriculture and Land Projects’ provide updates on recent projects through the portal, increasing transparency and accessibility in the sector .

The newly restructured Supreme Council for Investment in Egypt has actively promoted foreign direct investment (FDI) and private investment by spearheading legislative amendments through the Ministry of Justice. These amendments aim to ease restrictions on land ownership and facilitate foreign ownership of real estate in the country. In addition, the government has expanded the scope of the Golden License, which allows investors to lease, purchase, operate and manage projects.⁷⁷ Recently, in 2023, the ‘New Urban Communities Authority’ NUCA, launched a portal that provides investors with monthly updates and comprehensive resources on land use in new cities, increasing transparency and accessibility for potential investors.⁷⁸

Several laws in Egypt provide general provisions for the expropriation of private property, including Law No.27 of 1956, Law No. 252 of 1960, Law No. 577/54, and Law No. 10 of 199.⁷⁹ In 1997, the New Investment Law No. 72 of 2017 and the Incentives Law No. 8 were ratified to remove obstacles and streamline procedures. These laws exempt projects from registration fees, allocate free land for certain strategic projects, and refund 50% of the land price allocated to industrial projects with special conditions. These measures aim to encourage investment and economic development by facilitating the acquisition of land for various projects.⁸⁰

According to the National Alliance for Civil Development Work (NACDW), approximately 25% of Egypt's workforce is employed in the agricultural sector, 85% of whom are smallholder farmers. Challenges in the sector include high labor turnover and limited access to skilled labor. Poor working conditions and inadequate communication also demotivate workers, exacerbating the difficulties faced by those engaged in agricultural activities. Addressing these issues is critical to improving the productivity and sustainability of Egypt's agricultural sector.⁸¹

The ‘International Fund for Agricultural Development’ IFAD loans support settlement of land reclaimed in cooperation with the Egyptian government, it invested in 14 agricultural development projects and programmes for a total cost of US$ 1.1 billion, benefiting around 7 million people.The projects aim at building capacities for small-scale farmers, and influencing public policy on land tenure and land settlement systems. Also, FAO-CSA includes the establishment of an inclusive enabling environment that supports the development of suitable institutional structures and increased access to credit, insurance, extension, and advisory services for small-scale farmers.⁸²

The Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR) in Egypt has facilitated opportunities for smallholder farmers to engage in key value chains, prioritizing investments with significant potential impact on the broader agri-food sector.⁸³From 2015 to 2019, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) funded the 'Water Management Reform Programme' (WMRP) in collaboration with GIZ-Egypt, MALR, and farmer organizations. This initiative aims to support farmers and government authorities in the Nile Delta by implementing optimized processes for integrated water resources management, focusing on irrigation. The program includes capacity building initiatives, empowerment of women in irrigated agriculture, and the establishment of digital complaints management centers at the district level in two governorates to address farmers' concerns.⁸⁴

^{Fig. 2 Aswan Botanical Garden, Elephantine Island, Egyp, photo by Elias Rovielo,License ,CC BY 2.0 DEED}

Land acquisitions

The lack of a comprehensive land administration system is a major challenge in Egypt. Delays in land acquisition remain a major obstacle to attracting foreign direct investment, despite the existence of legislation on the expropriation of real estate for public interest projects. Land acquisition processes still operate in a context of legal and institutional pluralism, which hampers the establishment of a unified normative framework, particularly with regard to land improvement fees and interactions with tax authorities.⁸⁵

Land acquisition in Egypt involves various levels of documentation, including properties registered under Title Law 142 of 1946 and Deed Law 114 of 1946, those with informal documents, preliminary sales, registered court sales contracts, and old lease documents. Cadastral surveying and property registration are regulated by Law No. 114 of 1946, while Law No. 142 of 1964 regulates property registration as ‘Title’ registration.⁸⁶ In 1990, Law No. 10 established a framework for the expropriation of real estate for public investment projects.⁸⁷ Law No. 5 of 1996, as amended, deals with the acquisition and ownership of desert land, with leases becoming ownership after 50 years. In addition, Law No. 148 of 2011 laid the foundation for mortgage financing to develop the mortgage market in Egypt. These laws and regulations form the legal framework for land acquisition and ownership in the country.⁸⁸

In 2015, Law 10 was amended to give the Egyptian Survey Authority (ESA) responsibility for implementing land acquisition and compensation procedures, especially for land occupied by squatters or apparent owners during the expropriation process, even against the legal owner's proof of ownership. The determination of land improvement fees is the responsibility of Law 222/55, while the Ministry of Finance mandates the ESA to refer outstanding compensation payments, resulting in delays in completing land expropriations due to the lack of a comprehensive land management database and incomplete land survey data.⁸⁹ Agencies responsible for land expropriation must provide either compensation or alternative arrangements, such as compensation in kind, to displaced groups.⁹⁰

Women’s land rights

Despite the Egyptian Civil and Commercial Code granting women the right to own and access land, a 2019 study conducted by the National Council for Women in collaboration with the World Bank found that women own only 5.2% of land in Egypt.⁹¹ Furthermore, nearly 12% of female landowners own less than 1 feddan of land⁹², which is lower than the average in the Arab world, which is 7%, according to FAO.⁹³ According to the World Bank's Gender Data Portal, about 2% of women under the age of 50 own land. Rural women face particular challenges in owning land and assets, although women in New Lands receive 20% of the land titles distributed through housing programs.⁹⁴ Addressing gender disparities in land ownership and access remains a critical issue in Egypt.

The 2014 Egyptian Constitution includes articles that address the specific situation of women. Article 9 refers to the principle of equal opportunity and condemns discrimination against women, while article 11 ensures women’s protection against violence, their equality and access to economic, social and civil rights. Rural women are also granted social security from their states as per article 17.⁹⁵

Women's rights to inherit land in Egypt are legally recognized, particularly with the recent amendments to the Inheritance Law in 2017, which criminalize interfering with inheritance. Despite legal provisions, conservative traditions often limit women's control over their assets, resulting in them being placed under the guardianship of male family members.⁹⁶ In addition, the lack of legal protections in the new rental law exposes women to various forms of gender discrimination in housing, particularly in cases of separation or divorce. These challenges highlight the need for stronger legal safeguards to ensure women's rights to property and housing in Egypt.⁹⁷

^{Fig.3 Women selling fish on the roadside, Fayoum, Egypt. Photo by Samuel Stacey, 2012, photo bu WorldFish,License ,CC BY 2.0 DEED}

In the agribusiness workforce, female employment dropped to 26% in 2021 due to the widespread gender-based discrimination practices, restrictive gender norms and poor working conditions.⁹⁸ Recently, several loan products for rural women are being provided, including village banks’ financial schemes for women. In 2015, UN Women partnered with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) to foster the development of secure, and women-friendly workplaces within the agribusiness sector in Egypt, following the WEP framework⁹⁹, under the ‘Women’s Employment Promotion in the Agriculture Sector’ WEPP.¹⁰⁰ In 2009, MALR published the ‘Sustainable Agricultural Development Strategy’ SADS that emphasized the roles of women in rural development stimulating institutional support for implementation through creating new concessional credit lines and financial support. In alignment, the ‘National Strategy for the Empowerment of Egyptian Women 2030’ emphasizes the need for social insurance and income security.¹⁰¹ In 2020, Care Egypt Foundation implemented the ‘She Feeds the World’ program in cooperation with ‘Agricultural Research Center’ ARC, providing ‘Village Savings and Loans Associations’ VSLAs that aims at addressing challenges faced by small-scale farmers, and self-governed groups comprising around 20 women in each village to develop an evidence-based road map for decision-makers. In addition to capacity development programs for females at the ‘Central Administration for Agricultural Extension Services’ CAAES.¹⁰² The lack of gender-disaggregated data specific to individual agriculture production is persistent. However, some data sets distinguish between de-facto and de jure female-headed households.¹⁰³ The questionnaire for the 2005 Egypt Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS), included questions that distinguish between de jure and de facto female-headed households.¹⁰⁴

Urban tenure issues

During the 1970s, the Egyptian government prioritized housing for the middle class and largely refrained from intervening to regulate housing prices. Instead, it encouraged private sector investment in housing. However, this approach led to significant growth in the informal sector, driven primarily by rural migration and the increasing demand for affordable housing. The lack of government regulation further exacerbated the proliferation of informal settlements.¹⁰⁵

The scarcity of developable urban land in the formal sector has led to the growth of informal housing in Egypt. Many detailed urban planning strategies have failed to adequately account for population growth and establish clear boundaries around cities and villages. In addition, there has been a lack of enforcement of laws prohibiting construction on agricultural land. Restrictions on land subdivision and change of use have also contributed to the proliferation of illegal encroachments and informal settlements throughout the country.¹⁰⁶

Fig.4.Cairo slums, Phoro by Max Pfandl, flicker,License ,CC BY 2.0 DEED

Institute Secondary rights holders in informal settlements often lack documentation of ownership or legal occupation, making their tenure insecure. In response to this problem, the Egyptian Cabinet established the Informal Settlements Development Facility (ISDF) in 2008. ISDF's mandate is to map unsafe and unplanned informal areas throughout the country. Most of the interventions coordinated by the ISDF involve cooperation with local authorities and the Ministry of Housing. The primary objectives of these interventions are to ensure the right of citizens to adequate housing while improving land values for investors' development plans.¹⁰⁷

Article 78 of the 2014 Constitution recognizes the existence of informal settlements in Egypt. Amendments to the Construction Law 119/2008, according to the Minister of Housing's Decree No. 67/2014, stipulate that the state may require a 33% contribution of land in new subdivisions larger than five feddans for the provision of public facilities such as roads. However, the official subdivision process is rarely followed, and many landowners opt for informal development. ¹⁰⁸ Despite recent regulations aimed at upgrading slums, about 12 million people still live in informal settlements, almost half of which are located in Greater Cairo and cover agricultural and desert land. Recent registration systems have streamlined the registration process, automated records, and reduced registration fees to 10% of the value of the property, but the laws only recognize individual rights, not communal rights, with the exception of tribal rights.¹⁰⁹

Land governance innovations

In 2023, UNDP and FAO, in close collaboration with the Ministry of Environment (MoEnv), Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR) and Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWRI) launched the support program on ‘Scaling up Climate Ambition on Land Use and Agriculture’ SCALA programme. This five-year program aims to facilitate transformative climate action in the land use and agriculture sectors through multi-stakeholder engagement aimed at implementing National Action Plans (NAPs) for climate resilience and sustainability. The SCALA program seeks to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders to address the challenges posed by climate change and promote sustainable land use and agriculture practices across Egypt.¹¹⁰

Egypt's first updated Nationally Determined Contribution (FUNDC) aims to reduce its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by developing low-carbon energy systems. In addition, adaptation action packages within the FUNDC target various sectors, including water resources, irrigation, and agriculture. The main objective of the initiative is to strengthen agricultural production in the Valley and Nile Delta regions and to increase their resilience and adaptation to the impacts of climate change.¹¹¹ The World Food Programme (WFP) is partnering with Haya Karima to strengthen the livelihoods, resilience, and social and economic inclusion of people most vulnerable to food insecurity. This partnership is in line with the government's Vision 2030, the United Nations Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework for 2023-2027, and the regional refugee and resilience plan. This supports the progress towards Sustainable Development Goals 2 and 17.¹¹²

The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) are working with the Egyptian authorities and the private sector to increase Egypt's horticultural exports. The focus is on improving food safety standards to facilitate access to high-value export markets.¹¹³

Timeline - milestones in land governance

Egypt Vision 2030

A governance framework that sets out the country’s economic, social and environmental development priorities until 2030. The framework aims to increase Egypt’s GDP per capita, reduce poverty and contribute to food security in scope of the social protection and subsidy systems to achieve efficient management of land, water and adaptation priorities reflecting the situational climate change trends. Vision 2030 also recognizes the empowerment and protection of women as a priority for sustainable development. ¹¹⁴

New Administrative Capital, 2015

New hub for business, finance and government over 700-square km close to the Suez Canal Authority.¹¹⁵

New Valley Canal Project & El-Salam Canal Project, 2016

Two large projects funded by the government aiming at reclining 210,000 hectares of desert land for the purposes of cultivation. Potential reclamation reached up to 1.4 million hectares by 2017.¹¹⁶

Social Protection Programme ‘Haya Karima’, 2019

A presidential development initiative, meaning “decent life”, is to consolidate all the efforts of the state, civil society, and the private sector that cover 5,000 poor villages and marginalized rural areas through an integrated gender-transformative participatory approach.¹¹⁷

National Water Resources Plan 2017-2037.

A four-pillar approach to mitigate the water scarcity issues including water quality, conservation, resources development and raising awareness.

Where to go next?

The author’s suggestion for additional readings

Informal settlements are one of the most crucial challenges where people suffer from tenure insecurity. The paper ‘Evaluation of Resettlement Housing Scheme In Egypt’ synthesizes the findings from the study of informal settlements, intervention approaches, and resettlement housing policies. It provides recommendations for policy makers, urban planners, and stakeholders involved in addressing the complex challenges associated with insecure tenure in informal settlements.

In 2020, the Ministry of Planning and Economic Development, in collaboration with the ‘UNFPA’ United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and the Baseera Center, launched the "SDGs Localization at the Governorate Level" Project in order to target local development gaps. This project focuses on establishing specific quantitative targets for indicators to monitor the progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in each governorate.

In 2021, a report titled 'Country Gender Assessment in the Agriculture and Rural Sector' was published, offering current insights on the status of women in Egypt's rural sector. The report served as valuable input for the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in its contribution to the United Nations (UN).

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