By Marie Gagné, edited by Félix Ngana, University of Bangui
This is a translated version of the country profile originally written in French
The Central African Republic (CAR) is, as its name suggests, a continental country located in the heart of Africa. With an estimated population of 5,457,154 in 2021, spread over a territory of 623,980 km2 , the Central African Republic remains one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world (8.8 inhabitants/km2 )1 .
The landscapes of the CAR are very diverse, ranging from the Sudano-Sahelian steppes, to dry savannahs and woodlands, to equatorial forests2 . The country has 23 million hectares of forest covering 37% of its territory, including 5.4 million hectares of dense rainforest. Timber exploitation represents 2.7% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2020 and 13% of CAR's export earnings in 20163 . Thanks to its forests, the country hopes to soon receive payments for ecosystem services under the REDD+ program4 .
It is estimated that there are 35,034 workers in 186 mining areas. Most of the estimated volume of diamonds (82%) and gold (95%) is exported illegally. In this context, "it is the law of the strongest that ensures the governance of mining land."
Sangha river, Central African Republic by Gregoire Dubois(CC BY-NC 2.0)
The agricultural sector suffers from several difficulties despite the strong production potential. Some even speak of "the decay of Central African agriculture" which began during the colonial period. Characterized by the practice of slash and burn, agriculture in this country has historically received little state support to ensure its development5 . Nevertheless, the agricultural sector provides 85.6% of total employment and its value added to GDP amounted to 39.6% in 20176 .
CAR also has diamond, uranium and gold deposits. As a result of political and security unrest, the country was hit with a Kimberley Process export ban on its diamonds between 2013 and 2015, which has since been only partially lifted. While minerals and metals accounted for 58.3% of exported goods in 2012, this percentage dropped to 3.7% in 2017. The formal mining sector contributes only 0.5% of GDP7 . A significant amount of diamonds (estimated at 30% of total stones collected), however, continue to leave the country illegally8 .
The majority of the Central African population is Bantu. The indigenous Aka minority (also known as bayaka or ba'Aka) are the original inhabitants of the southwestern forest area. They are subject to severe discrimination by the Bantu. The Mbororo Fulani, the other official minority group in the country, live in the savanna areas9 . These nomadic herders came from neighbouring Cameroon in the 1920s with their cattle and were later joined by Fulani from Nigeria, Chad and Sudan10 .
The country is struggling to recover from two decades of intermittent conflict, despite the February 2019 signing of the Political Agreement for Peace and Reconciliation between the government and 14 armed groups11 . The state is only able to effectively control 20-40 per cent of the national territory12 , with the remainder under the control of rival armed factions. Socio-political instability, weak state institutions, and the landlocked and fragmented nature of the territory hamper agricultural production. Domestic and foreign armed groups are active in illegal logging, diamond mining and trading, and livestock theft13 .
The country ranks second to last on the Human Development Index (188 out of 189). Chronic malnutrition affects 40% of Central Africans. The security crisis of 2012-2013 led to massive population movements that continue to this day. As of September 2022, more than 1.3 million Central African citizens were refugees in neighbouring countries or internally displaced14 .
Historical context
The country was colonized by France in 1903 under the name of Oubangui-Chari. Colonization led to profound territorial recompositions, notably through the policy of relocation and regrouping of villages that had previously been scattered. To facilitate the requisitioning of labor, the French administration forced rural people to settle along the roadside, where the soil was poorer and food crop production more difficult, thus destabilizing food systems. Colonization also led to the establishment of concessionaires of rubber, cotton and cocoa plantations for export. Apart from the coffee crop adopted by peasants, agro-industrial production efforts have generally failed15 .
The country officially became independent from France on August 13, 1960. The post-colonial history of the Central African Republic is punctuated by recurrent conflicts that continue into the new millennium. In 2003, François Bozizé acceded to the presidency through a coup d'état and was subsequently elected in 2003 and 2011. In March 2013, the Séléka, a coalition of rebel groups from northeastern CAR and mercenaries from neighbouring countries, overthrew the regime of François Bozizé. This armed takeover led to a deep security and humanitarian crisis, with the Séléka employing "violence as a means of subjugation" of the population16 . Self-defense groups called anti-balaka were created to fight against the abuses perpetrated by the Séléka17 . However, the anti-balaka groups, which are mostly composed of Christians, quickly began to commit violence against Muslim civilians.
These conflicts initially focused on the control of central power and the capture of state revenues. As the state's income ran out, opposing groups turned to the control of natural resources, thus competing for territory and further weakening the government. To finance themselves, armed groups impose taxes on the exploitation and transportation of resources. Countries bordering the Central African Republic, coveting livestock and diamonds, have also contributed to instability18 .
Populations fleeing massacres, photograph by UNHCR/B. Heger (CC BY-NC 2.0)
The marginalization of rural areas in terms of access to public services, infrastructure, and agricultural support has led some villagers, particularly youth, to join militias. Paradoxically, these conflicts have greatly disrupted agricultural and pastoral activities. Herders have been particularly targeted by hostage-taking and extortion by "coupeurs de route" and in response have armed themselves to protect themselves19 .
President Faustin Archange Touadera was elected in 2016 and re-elected in 2020. In 2021, he declared a unilateral ceasefire that had little effect on the ground. To regain control of the rebel-held territory, the government relied on private Russian mercenaries and Rwandan soldiers. Clashes between government forces and rebel groups resulted in several civilian casualties. The Russian mercenaries are also accused of committing human rights abuses as they pass through20 . Far from solving the problems, the use of Russian forces reproduces the logic of territorial fragmentation that has characterized CAR since 2013.
Land legislation and regulations
The legal basis for regulating land tenure in CAR consists mainly of laws adopted in the 1960s, which were largely inspired by colonial legislation. Law n°63-441 of January 9, 1964 on the national domain continues to apply to this day, as do the provisions of Law n°139-60 of May 27, 1960 on the Land and Property Code which are not contradicted by the law on the national domain.
These land laws are complemented by Law No. 08-022 of October 17, 2008 on the Forestry Code of the Central African Republic. This law recognizes the customary use rights of local populations over the forest floor and forest products. The latter can collect dead wood for their subsistence, exploit service wood for building houses and making tools, exploit timber for building dugout canoes and, outside protected areas, hunt for their own consumption. The code also provides that the free and informed consent of indigenous peoples must be obtained prior to the establishment of protected areas in the territories they occupy. Another innovation in the code is the introduction of the concept of community forest, defined as a portion of the national forest managed by an organized village community21 . The recognition of customary rights is reinforced by the Central African Republic's accession in 2010 to the International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, the first African country to do so.
In 2011, the government undertook a reform of its land laws through two draft laws on the "Code domanial et foncier" and the "Code foncier agropastoral". After analysis, however, the government repealed them because their "adoption would have required the revision of numerous laws, including the Forestry Code, the Environment Code, the Mining Code, etc., as well as their implementing regulations. Instead, in 2012 the government launched a "Projet de Loi-cadre relatif à l'harmonisation des instruments juridiques en vue d'une meilleure gouvernance des régimes fonciers. This framework law has not yet been adopted22 .
Land tenure system
The law n°63-441 of January 9, 1964 distinguishes between public and private domains. The public domain includes spaces whose use is intended for the whole population. Rivers, lakes and ponds are part of the natural public domain of the State. The artificial public domain of the State includes roads, airports, telephone lines, electrical structures, etc. Land in the public domain cannot be sold or transferred to third parties23 .
The private domain includes land owned by the state or private individuals. The law establishes the state as the de facto owner of vacant land, i.e., land that did not belong to anyone at the time the law was enacted. By placing these lands in the private domain of the state, people can only exercise a right of use authorized by the state, at least from a legal point of view.
Access to full ownership in the Central African Republic is severely limited, and can only be achieved through a concession. Initially granted on a provisional basis, the concession can be transferred definitively to the concessionaire after two years in urban areas and five years in rural areas if the latter has complied with its development obligations. Thereafter, the land may be registered. If, however, it is found that a piece of land has not been developed after the regulatory period, the parcel returns to the private domain of the State to be allocated to someone else24 .
In practice, the Central African population makes little use of registration, due to ignorance of the law and also to the idea that they legitimately hold land without needing state recognition. In addition, the bureaucratic complexity of the procedure and the requirement of development hinder access to the concession and then to registration. Between 1960 and 2012, only 9,000 land titles were granted25 .
Land Use Trends
Land use in CAR is characterized by two trends: low population density relative to the size of the country and, more recently, territorial fragmentation among armed fiefdoms. The low population density has historical causes, ranging from slave raids by neighbouring sultanates in the pre-colonial period, to forced labor under colonization, to contemporary violence that has resulted in high mortality rates and massive population displacement26 .
The agriculture and livestock sectors remain underdeveloped in relation to the available land base. Approximately 5% of the Central African Republic's arable land is cultivated, or 750,000 hectares out of a potential 15 million. Pastures and rangelands could support up to 5 million cattle, but the national herd has never exceeded 3.5 million27 and dropped to 1.5 million head in 201428 .
Elephants gathering in a clearing, photo by David Weiner (CC BY-NC 2.0)
Forests in CAR are generally well preserved, with deforestation rates reported to be only 0.1 to 0.2% per year from 1990 to 2015. In 20 years, the dense humid forest has decreased by 4,067 km2 , or 4% of its surface. The expansion of slash-and-burn agriculture is the main source of deforestation in the southwestern massif. In this system, farmers cultivate the same plot of land for two to three years and then leave the land fallow for five to ten years. As the resting soil eventually regains its fertility, the problem is not so much with this type of farming system per se, but rather with its rapid expansion29 . In peri-urban areas, particularly on the outskirts of the capital Bangui, deforestation is mainly caused by timber exploitation30 .
Within industrial forest concessions, timber removals amount to less than one tree per hectare31 . Total annual production has fluctuated up and down over the past 20 years, reaching its highest level in 2001 (671,239 cubic meters) and its lowest in 2014 following the crisis (237,489 cubic meters). In 2021, the amount of timber harvested is 549,683 cubic meters32 . The Forestry Code allows artisanal logging with small equipment in production forests. In principle, such logging is conditional on obtaining an annual permit, but in practice, the majority of loggers operate illegally33 .
The country has 18 protected areas whose total area covers 11% of the national territory, or 6,814,200 hectares. However, only three of these areas are effectively managed and monitored with international cooperation funds. The Central African Republic has completed the REDD+ readiness phase to receive payments, which should in principle lead to better conservation of its forest resources. The 2012-2013 crisis had interrupted the process, which was resumed in 2016. Ultimately, CAR aims to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 5% by 2030 and 25% by 2050, while developing agriculture and stabilizing the prevalence of food insecurity34 .
In the mining sector, the two foreign companies that held uranium and gold exploration licenses left the country following the 2013 crisis. The crisis also destructured the once dominant diamond industry. Gold panning, on the other hand, is growing. Gold and diamond mining is mostly carried out by small-scale diggers without permits, whose production is now bought by smugglers. In eastern CAR, the market is thus entirely controlled by rebels. It is estimated that there are 35,034 workings in 186 mining areas. Most of the estimated volume of diamonds (82%) and gold (95%) is exported illegally35 . In this context, "it is the law of the strongest that ensures the governance of mining land"36 .
To re-establish its authority over the territory, the Central African government relies on Russian mercenaries. A recent investigation revealed that in the areas they have reconquered, they also control diamond and gold mining. Various companies linked to Wagner, the Russian private security group, are allegedly involved in the mining, trading and export of diamonds from CAR, including areas banned by the Kimberley Process37 .
Investments and land acquisitions
There is little investment in land in the agricultural sector. Cotton and coffee production, which provided more than half of CAR's foreign exchange until the mid-1990s, has declined sharply and is currently at a "paltry level. Several coffee plantations have been abandoned and no new ones have been established in the last decade 38.
The Castel Group, a French agribusiness firm, has been operating the 5,137-hectare Sucrerie africaine de Centrafrique (SUCAF RCA) since 2003. This company is the subject of controversy. In late 2012, the area where SUCAF RCA is located came under the control of the Séleka, who attacked employees and robbed the company. In this context, SUCAF RCA reportedly negotiated an agreement in 2014 with an ex-Séléka armed group to protect its fields, processing plant and roads necessary for its supply. SUCAF RCA is also said to have attempted to preserve its monopoly and combat contraband sugar through this arrangement. In exchange, the company is said to have offered financial and logistical support to the armed rebel group, which is responsible for "committing mass atrocities"39 .
rTwo oil palm plantations were also recently established in the savanna zone. In 2012, Palmex began agricultural activities on 8,701 hectares, but appears to have since ceased operations40 . Around 2013, the Central African state also granted a 25,000 hectare concession to the company Palme d'Or to create a 10,000 hectare plantation41 .
At last count, this company was continuing operations on 3,000 hectares42 . Apart from a few modest attempts, no foreign agribusinesses have reportedly gone into business in recent years. Land acquisitions in CAR are mostly in the form of forest concessions, mainly to foreign companies. Virtually all of the forests in the southwestern massif, estimated at 3.8 million hectares, have been allocated to logging concessionaires or set up as protected areas43 . In 2021, 14 companies with logging and management permits will share 3,695,831 hectares of forest, or about 5% of the national territory. Of these, 10 companies are actually operating44 . Like SUCAF, three of these companies reportedly made payments to the Séleka and then to anti-balaka groups to continue logging and exporting timber during the political unrest45.
The state is now acting on a similar logic. The Central African government has revoked a 187,000 hectare mining permit and awarded it in 2021 to Bois Rouge, a company linked to the private security group Wagner. This award, which came 15 days after the Central African Army and Russian fighters retook the main town in the area, suggests that the government offered the concession as a reward to its ally. In addition, the government granted more flexible operating conditions and more generous tax and customs benefits than normal, without the company meeting its contractual obligations46
Community land rights
In legal terms, community land rights are poorly protected. Law No. 63-441 of January 9, 1964, considers customary owners as mere precarious holders47 . The forestry code recognizes the right of local populations to use land and resources, but not the right to sell, rent or dispose of forests. Moreover, although people may be given the right to manage community forests, there is virtually no space available to do so in the southwest zone48 .
Customary land rights are often violated. Indigenous peoples in particular are frequently evicted from their lands to establish logging concessions without adequate compensation from the government. Indigenous peoples often leave their forests without any claim. Another form of expropriation at the margins of the law is caused by insecurity, which forces people to abandon their fields and livestock to rebel groups who forcibly occupy the territory49 .
Women's land rights
There are significant gender disparities in the agricultural, forestry and mining sectors.
In the Central African Republic, women have a right to use the land, mainly for food crops, while men are responsible for cash crops50 . Women work the land of their ancestors, their husbands or their in-laws. Although land is passed down through the patrilineal system, women can sometimes own the land if they decide to stay on it with their children. Widows without children, however, face problems of inheritance.
The 1998 cotton crisis led to a redistribution of labor within households and a recomposition of decision-making mechanisms. With the decline in income from cotton production, farm households retreated to food crops. Men took control of crops that were previously the domain of women, such as groundnuts. This change was also accompanied by a process of centralization of decision-making in favor of the man within the household51 .
Women watering a garden, photograph by European External Action Service (CC BY-NC 2.0)
With respect to forests, community forest management bodies must be representative and include women according to the allocation procedures manual. However, since the minimum number of women required to sit on these committees is not specified, very few women are members. The few women treasurers or advisors have no real influence on decision-making52 .
Gender inequalities also characterize the mining sector. In CAR, the proportion of women who practice artisanal mining is low, representing only 17% of miners in the east of the country and 3% in the west (compared to 57% in Cameroon, for example). Very few women are site managers, reflecting their limited access to land. Nevertheless, the income of women operators is "significantly higher" than that of men working on the sites. With the decline in metal prices, women whose husbands are artisanal miners also enjoy greater decision-making power due to their increased contribution to household income53.
In general, the gender division of labor is more distinct in Bantu households than in indigenous communities. The latter "are more open to the involvement of women" and are marked by greater gender diversity. Men and women collaborate in the productive and reproductive activities of the family unit. For example, indigenous women can hunt just like men. They are also consulted and listened to by the men for important decisions affecting their community54 . Outside of their communities, however, Aboriginal women and men face marginalization and exploitation by Bantu. Indigenous people are often subjected to forced labour and even slavery55 .
The chronic weakness of state institutions and the recent increase in insecurity amplify women's vulnerability and gender inequalities in access to land. Women are frequently victims of sexual violence, a threat to which displaced women are particularly exposed. CAR is one of the most unequal countries between men and women, ranking 159e out of 162 countries according to the Human Development Report 202156 . With political unrest causing thousands of deaths, widowed women may find themselves without access to land because their in-laws have regained control of the land57 .
Urban land tenure
According to Law No.o 61-263 of December 23, 1961 on urban planning, communes are required to draw up a master plan for urban planning to "promote the development of urban centers and the improvement of housing"58 . Decree No. 66-236 of June 20, 1966, approving the urban planning regulations for provincial towns in CAR, specifies the standards applicable to construction, development and demolition in provincial towns. Decree No.o 72-324 of 29 September 1972 approving the urban planning regulations for the city of Bangui is a set of rules designed to be applied only in the capital. Together, these two regulations provide CAR with the opportunity to develop a national urban planning code. The government has also promulgated Law No.o 09-003 of January 16, 2009 on the Orientation of the National Land Use Policy.
However, enforcement of these laws remains weak. Only a few development plans have actually been drawn up for the large cities, and on the whole, the population continues to occupy land spontaneously59 . In Bangui, the last subdivision operation took place in 1983, as the city no longer has any new land available for distribution.
Bangui, the capital of the Central African Republic, photograph by European External Action Service (CC BY-NC 2.0)
The lack of territorial planning is aggravated by the strong urban population growth, which is itself fueled by security crises in rural areas. In 60 years, the population of Bangui has increased almost tenfold, from 87,000 in 1960 to 800,000 in 2018, representing over 17% of the national population. In total, 40% of Central Africans live in urban areas. Bangui has the highest population density in the country with more than 10,000 inhabitants/km2 .
The sharp increase in the population of Bangui and the scarcity of land have resulted in the urbanization of agricultural areas on the outskirts of the city. The area of the city has thus increased from 22.56 km2 in 1960 to 150 km2 in 2010, forcing producers to cultivate further and further outside of Bangui60 . The strong pressure on land in peri-urban areas has led to the disappearance of traditional modes of access to land, the individualization of land rights and the creation of a land market. Many villagers, driven by poverty, are selling their land "at rock bottom prices" to urban elites61 .
Land innovations
Although mentioned in the Forestry Code, community forests did not have a regulatory framework for their effective implementation. To remedy this shortcoming, in 2015 the government adopted Decree No.o 15-463 setting the terms and conditions for the allocation and management of community forests in the Central African Republic, as well as a procedures manual62 .
With the support of national and foreign civil society organizations, villages have been granted community forests. Legally, communities whose territory has been conceded to logging companies can only occupy small areas called "agricultural and human occupation series" within the concessions. The Ministry of Water, Forests, Hunting and Fishing recognized a first community forest in 2019, even though it was located within the perimeter of a logging company. To get around the 5,000 hectare limit, the villages involved also applied for three contiguous community forests totaling 15,000 hectares to be managed jointly. Although community forests do not secure access to land, they do allow villagers to control and use their forest space63 . The allocation of the first village forests marks a success story for the respect of customary land rights in CAR.
Land tenure timeline
1903: France colonizes the territory of the current CAR.
1960: The government adopted law n°139-60 of 27 May 1960 on the Land and Property Code.
1964: The government promulgates the law n°63-441 of January 9, 1964 relating to the national domain which remains in force until today.
2003: François Bozizé acceded to the presidency through a coup d'état, and was subsequently elected in 2003 and 2011.
2008: Law No. 08-022 of October 17, 2008 on the Forestry Code of the Central African Republic was adopted. This law recognizes customary rights of use over the land and forest resources.
2009: The government adopts the law n°09-003 concerning the orientation of the National Policy of Territorial Development.
2013 : The Séléka seizes power by force of arms. A decade of security unrest over control of the country's natural resources (diamonds, gold, livestock, forests) follows.
2015 : The government adopts Decree No.o 15-463 setting the terms and conditions for the allocation and management of community forests in the Central African Republic, along with a procedures manual.
2019 : The government signs the Political Agreement for Peace and Reconciliation with 14 armed groups. A first community forest comes into being.
Do you want to know more about the subject?
The author's suggestions for further reading
For comprehensive coverage of all land tenure issues in CAR, I recommend this report, produced as part of the REDD+ initiative. Although somewhat technical, the document provides an overview of land use and natural resource exploitation issues through the prism of their effects on the conservation of Central African forests.
To understand how the timber industry has fueled the conflict in CAR, Global Witness' Bloodwood report remains a reference. Readers can also watch this video that summarizes the highlights of the document.
On a more positive note, this paper reports on efforts to create community forests in CAR, particularly the successful experience of the villages of Moloukou, Moalé, and Lokombé in the southwest.
References
[1] https://donnees.banquemondiale.org/pays/republique-centrafricaine..
[2] USAID. 2021. Central African Republic- Property Rights and Resource Governance Profile. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/14384/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile-central-african
[3] Cerutti, Paolo Omar, Sylvère Sombo, Marc Vandenhaute and Yvon Patrick Senguela. 2022. State of the Forestry and Timber Sector in the Central African Republic (2021). EFI and CIFOR. URL: https://landportal.org/fr/library/resources/état-du-secteur-forêt-bois-en-république-centrafricaine-2021.
Langevin, Christine, Luce-Eline Darteyron, Augustin Palliere, Damas Mokpidie and Jacques Burnouf. 2020. CAR National REDD+ Investment Framework 2020-2025. Final version. Marseille: Terea. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/cadre-national-d%E2%80%99investissement-redd-2020-2025-de-la-rca.
[4] Long called the "reduction of emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, combined with sustainable management of forests, conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks", this UN-coordinated initiative aims to compensate countries that contribute to CO2storage.
[5] Dufumier, Marc and Benoît Lallau. 2015. "Impossible Agricultural Development in the Central African Republic?" Les Cahiers d'Outre-Mer (272):463-608. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/impossible-d%C3%A9veloppement-agricole-en-r%C3%A9publique-centrafricaine.
[6] World Bank Development Indicators, cited by Langevin, Christine, Luce-Eline Darteyron, Augustin Palliere, Damas Mokpidie and Jacques Burnouf. 2020. CAR National REDD+ Investment Framework 2020-2025. Final version. Marseille: Terea. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/cadre-national-d%E2%80%99investissement-redd-2020-2025-de-la-rca
[7] Langevin, Christine, Luce-Eline Darteyron, Augustin Palliere, Damas Mokpidie and Jacques Burnouf. 2020. CAR National REDD+ Investment Framework 2020-2025. Final version. Marseille: Terea. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/cadre-national-d%E2%80%99investissement-redd-2020-2025-de-la-rca.
[8] Zufferey, Dimitri, with the contribution of Justine Brabant. 2022. "Diamonds sold on Facebook lead to Russian group Wagner". Radio Télévision Suisse (RTS), 2 December. URL: https://landportal.org/news/2023/04/diamonds-sold-facebook-lead-russian-group-wagner.
[9] Kenfack, Pierre Etienne, with the collaboration of Marjolaine Pichon. 2018. What land rights for people in forest areas in the Central African Republic? London: The Rainforest Foundation UK. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/quels-droits-fonciers-pour-les-populations-des-zones-forestie%CC%80res-en-re%CC%81publique.
USAID. 2021. Central African Republic- Property Rights and Resource Governance Profile. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/14384/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile-central-african
[10] Dufumier, Marc and Benoît Lallau. 2015. "Impossible Agricultural Development in the Central African Republic?" Les Cahiers d'Outre-Mer (272):463-608. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/impossible-d%C3%A9veloppement-agricole-en-r%C3%A9publique-centrafricaine.
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Dubiez, Emilien, Laurent Gazull, Régis Peltier, and Guillaume Lescuyer. 2019. Inventory of artisanal timber exploitation on the outskirts of Bangui in the Central African Republic. Quantification of flows and characterization of the sector. Montpellier: CIRAD. URL: https://landportal.org/node/113762.
Langevin, Christine, Luce-Eline Darteyron, Augustin Palliere, Damas Mokpidie and Jacques Burnouf. 2020. CAR National REDD+ Investment Framework 2020-2025. Final version. Marseille: Terea. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/cadre-national-d%E2%80%99investissement-redd-2020-2025-de-la-rca.
Zufferey, Dimitri, with the contribution of Justine Brabant. 2022. "When Wagner's Russian mercenaries clear the Central African forest". Radio Télévision Suisse (RTS), July 27. URL: https://landportal.org/news/2023/04/quand-les-mercenaires-russes-de-wagner-d%C3%A9boisent-la-for%C3%AAt-centrafricaine.
Zufferey, Dimitri, with the contribution of Justine Brabant. 2022. "Diamonds sold on Facebook lead to Russian group Wagner". Radio Télévision Suisse (RTS), 2 December. URL: https://landportal.org/news/2023/04/diamonds-sold-facebook-lead-russian-group-wagner.
[14] Tan, Jim. 2021. "Gabon becomes first African country to get paid for protecting its forests". Mongabay, July 20. URL: https://landportal.org/news/2022/04/gabon-becomes-first-african-country-get-paid-protecting-its-forests.
[15] Dufumier, Marc and Benoît Lallau. 2015. "Impossible Agricultural Development in the Central African Republic?" Les Cahiers d'Outre-Mer (272):463-608. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/impossible-d%C3%A9veloppement-agricole-en-r%C3%A9publique-centrafricaine.
[16]Betabelet, Julie Roselyne Wouloungou. 2018. Ressources, territoires et conflits: élevage bovin et exploitation minière dans l'Ouest centrafricain, PhD thesis in geography, Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/ressources-territoires-et-conflits-%C3%A9levage-bovin-et-exploitation-mini%C3%A8re-dans
[17] Kenfack, Pierre Etienne, with the collaboration of Marjolaine Pichon. 2018. What land rights for people in forest areas in the Central African Republic? London: The Rainforest Foundation UK. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/quels-droits-fonciers-pour-les-populations-des-zones-forestie%CC%80res-en-re%CC%81publique
[18] Betabelet, Julie Roselyne Wouloungou. 2018. Ressources, territoires et conflits: élevage bovin et exploitation minière dans l'Ouest centrafricain, PhD thesis in geography, Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/ressources-territoires-et-conflits-%C3%A9levage-bovin-et-exploitation-mini%C3%A8re-dans.
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