Bangladesh - Context and Land Governance

^{Photo: Canal and paddy fields in Bangladesh, photo by Vespertunes, Wikimedia Commons license}

Under British rule, modern Bangladesh was formed as a province of Pakistan after the partition of Bengal in 1947⁴.It achieved independence in 1971 after a nine-month war. From 1975 to 1990 the country was held under military rule, with a secular constitution changed to promote Islam and allow religious political parties. The military regime was overthrown in 1990 by a popular movement. The Awami League has been in power since 2009, with Sheikh Hasina Wazed as Prime Minister throughout this period. Political unrest is rife within Bangladesh, polarised between two major political parties, and compounded by tensions with Myanmar over the Rohingya refugee crisis.

Bangladesh is an ethnically homogenous state, with Bengalis making up 98% of the total population, and is the third largest Muslim-majority country. Nevertheless, 27 indigenous groups live in plain and hill areas, comprising 1.2% of the population⁵ . Overall, the 2017 household-expenditure survey suggests improvements in poverty reduction, although there remains a rural poverty rate of 10.44%⁶ . Sustained economic growth has put Bangladesh on the pathway to graduate from the UN’s Least Developed Countries list in 2024. As such a densely populated country, land scarcity is a significant issue which is aggravated by deforestation. The administrative system is cumbersome, corruption is rampant, titling and registration costs high, and land-related disputes are common⁷ . In order to address these challenges and increase tenure security, the Land Crime Prevention and Remedy Act is under way.

Land legislation and regulations

The 1972 Bangladesh Constitution (last amended in 2018) states that all citizens have the right to hold, acquire, transfer and dispose of property (Article 42)⁸ .Specific land laws are scattered and largely based on legislation originating in the British Colonial and then Pakistan periods ⁹. From the colonial period, the Property Act of 1882 and Registration Act of 1908 set out procedures for the transfer and registration of private land ownership ¹⁰. In 1885, the Bengal Tenancy Act was enacted which established a process of recognizing tenancy rights to land. As part of Pakistan, the 1950 State Acquisition and Tenancy Act established a 33-acre land ceiling for private ownership, prohibiting the conversion of agricultural land ¹¹. After independence, the 1984 Land Reforms Ordinance gave support to rural smallholders, placing a 20-acre ceiling on agricultural land, and increasing tenure security on state land for the landless and sharecroppers ¹² . The National Land Use Policy from 2001 emphasised the prohibition to convert agricultural land to non-agricultural purposes, establishing agro-ecological zoning to maximise land-use efficiency. 

There are significant efforts underway to enact the Land Crime Prevention and Remedy Act that aims to reduce land-related conflicts, crime, and corruption. The act entails provisions on digital land services, the speedy redress of crimes related to (attempts of) illegal occupation or damage to land, the prevention of illegal occupation and document fraud. It also includes sections that aim to protect the environment by inhibiting settlement on hill (foots) without permission, penalising waterlogging, and any damages to rivers and wetlands by soil, sand, rubbish, or infrastructure development. Furthermore, claiming ownership of more land than its actual size, the deprivation of co-inheritors, or the re-negotiation of pledged land will be punishable offences ¹³ .

Alongside, the government has drafted two other land governance related laws, notably “Land Use and Ownership Rights Act” and the Land Uses Rights Act”. The former includes provision on the “Certificate of Land Ownership” and the digital smart card that will contain all information of ownership. All three draft laws will be sent to parliament for enactment after approval from the cabinet.

There are two main agencies governing land in Bangladesh:

•  The Ministry of Lands is responsible for land administration through its divisions: the Directorate of Land Record and Survey, the Land Reform Board, and the Land Appeal Board.
• Through the Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary affairs, the Directorate of Registration is responsible for changes in ownership and taxation.

Governance issues involve a lack of coordination between these ministries, while there are problems around the application of laws, such as land ceilings and multiple claims on land ¹⁴.The Delta Plan 2100 sets out long-term aims to alleviate such problems by the end of the century, modernising land administration, improving zoning, protecting agricultural land, and supporting landless peasants¹⁵ .

Land tenure classifications 

Different forms of land tenure involve private and state (khas) land. Khas land is managed by the Ministry of Lands, and between one and three acres (0.4-1.2 hectares) can be allocated under 99-year lease agreements ¹⁶ . A 2017 study highlighted 3.3 million acres (1.3 million hectares) of khas land, with 0.8 million acres (0.5 million hectares) agricultural land, 1.7 m non-agricultural land (0.7 million hectares) and 0.8 million acres water bodies ¹⁷. Other forms of leaseholds include that of private land, which must be registered if more than one year, and sharecropping agreements. The latter are for a minimum of 5 years and heritable. There is both Waqf (Islamic) and Debottar (Hindu) land reserved for religious purposes and governed under respective religious laws ¹⁸. Much land, however, remains under pending registration and so is managed under informal local rules. This can mean its tenure is insecure, such in urban areas where land is squatted.For indigenous groups in Chittagong Hill Tracts, a separate legal system blends formal law and customary practices. Governance is theoretically shared between central government and customary institutions, although in practice the former tends not to intervene. Nevertheless, there are many accounts of land grabbing from ethnic minorities, such as a case from 2016 where police, with tacit support of local politicians, burnt the ethnic minority village of Santhal to the ground, to make way for a sugar mill¹⁹.

A preliminary report on the 2019 Agricultural Census of the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics suggests that one quarter of rural households are landless, an improvement from its previous edition²⁰.

However, at least 50% of households are still deemed land-poor in some form ²¹ .Indeed, most land is owned by non-farmers for use as a rent-seeking venture²². 

Reform and resettlement programmes support the distribution of khas land to landless peasants ²³ .However, disputes are frequent in a system riddled with corruption, poor coordination between government departments, and an inefficient land administration ²⁴ .Registering land is expensive, requiring eight procedures and costs 6.7% of the property value. This is despite the introduction of a Digital Land Management System (DLMS) in 2011, intended to improve accessibility and transparency ²⁵.
 

^{Flood in bangladesh 2016, photo by Nahid.rajbd (CC BY-SA 3.0)​}

Land use trends

Framed by the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna River delta forms the world’s largest delta and is one of the most fertile areas of the world²⁶ .In 1990, agricultural land reached 80% of the total land use, reducing to a stable 70% since 2010 ²⁷ .Rice is by far the most significant crop, and Bangladesh is a top five global rice producer. Nevertheless, despite the majority of the population living in rural areas, there is a decreasing contribution of the agricultural sector to employment. 70% of the workforce were employed in agriculture at the beginning of the 1990s, decreasing to 37.7% in 2020, compared to 40.6% in services ²⁸ .      

Nearly 80% of the country’s land cover is considered floodplains. More than 20% are flooded annually destroying infrastructure, housing, crops, and leading to the erosion of agricultural land. The extent of annual floods and the damage they cause are expected to increase in the wake of climate change.  Bangladesh has only few mineral deposits, including small reserves of coa, oil, and offshore natural gas. Industrial production covers cement, granite and limestone on a small-scale.

There are three types of forest in Bangladesh: tropical forest in the eastern hills, deciduous fest in the central plains and northeastern areas, and mangrove forests along the coasts. In 2020, forest cover was measured at 14.5% of total land ²⁹ .About half of the country’s total forest land are forest plantations. Between 2001 and 2021 the country experienced a 11% decrease of tree cover. 

Deforestation is a major issue, particularly in Chittagong. Reports also show that protected forest areas face degradation through development projects or local deforestation. Notably, the likelihood of forest fires has increased significantly in recent years ³⁰ .The newly enacted Forest (Conservation) Amendment Bill of 2023 is pivotal to a shift in forest management practices and biodiversity protection. Replacing the colonial Forest Act of 1927, the new legislation turns away from the prevalent revenue-generating approach and has been celebrated as a “paradigm shift”.  The Bangladesh Vision 2021 wants to raise forest and grassland cover to 15% ³¹ .However, aims to achieve middle-income status are placing pressures on land conversion to industrial uses. 

With its high-density population, vulnerability to natural disaster, and incidence of degradation, land scarcity is prominent in Bangladesh. Land inequality is rife, with many cases of elite grabs in the face of ineffective legislation and administration ³² .

Land investments and acquisitions

The Bangladesh government has initiated a number of infrastructure projects in transportation (roads, bridges, railways, seaports, and airports) and industrial zones, which involve the acquisition of land. This further reflects the rise of the private sector investment in land for factories and other commercial needs. Economic zones are used to boost domestic and foreign investment aiming to achieve decentralisation, industrial self-sufficiency, and employment creation. Together with the National Economic Zones Act, the Bangladesh Economic Zones Authority (BEZA) was set up in 2010 ³³. By May 2023, BEZA had approved 107 zones of which 10 were fully operating and producing with another 29 under implementation ³⁴.However, operationalisation of zones has proved to be a slow process.

The Acquisition and Requisition of Immovable Property Act (2017) is the latest legal update tracing back to the Land Acquisition Act of 1894 from the British colonial period. Through this law, the government can acquire land in the public interest. In theory, the amendment ensures that the voice of the property owner is heard, increasing compensation levels where acquisitions do take place. However, compensation is only paid out to land owners that are formally registered, and there is no formal resettlement policy or law ³⁵. Indeed, there is a sizable legacy of land disputes, with a 2015 paper noting over 3.2 million land-related cases pending in court, clogging up the system ³⁶ .It does not help that ownership in rural areas is often unregistered ³⁷. There are numerous cases of land grabs for real estate in urban areas, accompanied by threats from armed gangs ³⁸ . Land can also be used as a commodity in corrupt deals with government officials. There is no uniform system for settling land disputes, and little legal aid to support land users wishing to pursue or defend a grievance ³⁹. Cases can take years to resolve, and only the wealthy have the time and money to participate in them ⁴⁰ .

Women’s land rights

Despite the constitution stating that all citizens are equal before the law, significant issues remain to achieve gender equality⁴¹ ,⁴². Although more women take up a role as members of local government councils their overall political representation is low ⁴³.

Despite the equitable share in agricultural labour, agricultural land ownership is rare for women, and even then, there are many cases of land grabs from women by men. A 2012 study states that land holdings for male-headed households are often more than twice the size of those headed by women⁴⁴. In 2013, FAO estimated that the proportion of agricultural land owned by women had shrunk from 3.5% in 1993 to 2% ⁴⁵.In fact, households headed by unmarried women or widows with only daughters, or no children are often excluded from land reform programmes⁴⁶ .

Inheritance practices in Bangladesh are deferred by statutory law to governance through the different domestic religions ⁴⁷ .The laws themselves tend to discriminate against women. For example, Hindu laws rarely entitle women to land inheritance. Under Islamic law, daughters inherit half the share of land compared to sons, and cultural norms support a daughter surrendering her inheritance to her brothers. A widow receives one-eighth of their husband’s property if she has children, and one-fourth if not. However, there is a general risk that property ownership becomes monopolised by paternal relatives rather than passing to direct female kin.

Urban tenure

Urban planning has been largely ineffective since colonial times and characterised by technocracy, centralization, bureaucracy, and ad hoc planning ⁴⁸. There is an acute demand for housing to accommodate the dense population, particularly those moving into urban areas to escape rural poverty. In 2022, only 39.7% of the population are calculated to be residing in urban areas, a figure projected to pass 50% in 2037 ⁴⁹. Yet despite the proportional urban population lying below the global average, there are still over 62 million people living in cities, with concentrations in Dhaka (nearly 18 million), Chittagong and Khulna Metropolitan areas ⁵⁰. Informal settlements are prevalent in urban areas, including 37% of the population in Dhaka, and 35% in Chittagong, notably in areas prone to floods ⁵¹. Due to increasing annual rainfalls of up to 2,000 mm many communities along the rivers in Dhaka have been forced to relocate. 

Climate change

^{Stilt houses in Dhaka, coping with climate change}

Bangladesh is extremely vulnerable to both extreme weather events and climate change impacts ⁵².It was ranked seventh amongst countries most affected by climate-related events between 1999 and 2018 ⁵³ .The geographical form and positioning of Bangladesh acts as a collection point for monsoon rains, leading to more extensive and more frequent flooding and river erosion ⁵⁴ . The major climate-induced hazards in Bangladesh are droughts, earthquakes, landslides, land degradation, coastal and riverbank erosion, as well as tropical cyclones ⁵⁵ .Rising sea levels threaten one fifth of the country. After heavy rainfall one third of the country was flooded in mid-2022. Disasters not only threaten people’s lives but also impact livelihoods and ecosystem patterns drastically.

The new land and forest legislation aims to tackle the country’s susceptibility to climate change-induced stresses. Instead of continuing the government’s approach of revenue creation from natural resources, these new laws put special emphasis on the protection of forests, biodiversity, and river basins.

*****

---> This data card outlines in a visual way some of the key data on climate change vulnerability and land tenure security in Bangladesh. It helps to understand the potential connections between the two issues.

Land governance innovations

Through National Engagement Strategies (NES), the International Land Coalition, with its local members, are helping to strengthen multi-stakeholder land platforms using the VGGT. Bangladesh is one of 21 countries in the initial stages of an NES. Local organisations involved include the Association for Land Reform and Development (ALRD – a national network of land rights organisations), Kepaeeng Foundation (focused on indigenous people’s land rights), and Badabon Sangho (focused on women’s land rights). Kendrio Krishok Moitree (KKM), as a member of the Asian Farmers Association (AFA), has been producing briefs helping to raise awareness on the VGGT for smallholders ⁵⁶.
The initiative Land Service Week was hosted by the Ministry of Land in 2023. During this week, various service booths were set up in each district’s land office. This includes consultation and the provision of services, e.g. certified Record of Rights and mapping services, as well as information about the ministry’s Smart Land Management plans.  

Where to go next?

The author's suggestions for further reading

For a more extensive overview of land legislation and tenure, in the context of evictions and housing insecurity, the International Red Cross released a significant 2017 report. To have a more critical look at the challenges of forest protection, we recommend Mongabay’s piece How much of Bangladesh’s protected forests are really protected?

 The paper Rural Land Management in Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects by Fahria Masum is an excellent view into how inequality and landlessness pervade rural land management. In 2019, a new agricultural census took place in Bangladesh. A preliminary report is available in English, and it is worth keeping an eye open for further analyses of the data.

Timeline - milestones in land governance

1882/1908 – Promulgation of Property and Registration Acts
Colonial era legislation serving today, which set out procedures for the transfer and registration of private land ownership.

1950 – Promulgation of State Acquisition and Tenancy Act
Enacted when part of Pakistan but remaining today, the Act established a 33-acre land ceiling for private ownership, prohibiting the conversion of agricultural land.

1971 – Independence
Bangladesh became a province of Pakistan after the partition of Bengal in 1947, achieving independence in 1971 after a nine-month war. 

1984 – Promulgation of Land Reforms Ordinance
The ordinance places a 20-acre ceiling on agricultural land, and increases tenure security on state land for the landless and sharecroppers.

2018 – Bangladesh seventh highest country affected by climate-related events
Ranked according to Germanwatch’s Global Climate Risk Index, covering the period 1999-2018

2019 – 25% of rural households are landless
Although the 2019 Agricultural Census suggests a drop in landless rural households, at least 50% of households are still land-poor in some form.

2020 – 101 economic zones approved

Zones approved by the Bangladesh Economic Zones Authority (BEZA)

2023 – New Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act enacted and new land laws drafted

In addition to the new forest law, the Land Crime Prevention and Remedy Act alongside the Land Use and Ownership Rights Act and the Land Uses Rights Act is about to be approved and enacted.

References

[1] IFRC. (2017). Disaster Law Housing, Land and Property Mapping Project: Bangladesh. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. https://landportal.org/library/resources/housing-land-and-property-law-bangladesh

[2] World Bank. (2020). World Bank Open Data. The World Bank: Working for a World Free of Poverty. https://data.worldbank.org/

[3] FAO. (2010). Eroding Rivers, Eroding Livelihoods in Bangladesh. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation; UN-Habitat. https://landportal.org/library/resources/eroding-rivers-eroding-livelihoods-bangladesh

[4] Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2020). BTI 2020 Country Report Bangladesh. Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/bti-2020-country-report-bangladesh

[5] IFRC. (2017). Disaster Law Housing, Land and Property Mapping Project: Bangladesh. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. https://landportal.org/library/resources/housing-land-and-property-law-bangladesh

[6] Using the international poverty line of 2.15 USD. World Bank. 2023. Poverty and Equity Brief South Asia: Bangladesh. URL: https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_BGD.pdf

[7] Masum, F. (2017). Rural Land Management in Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects. Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape, 4, 79–93. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpdxdoiorg1015576gll2017479/rural-land-management-bangladesh Nahrin, K., & Rahman, M. S.-U. (2009). Land Information System (LIS) for Land Administration and Management in Bangladesh. Journal of Bangladesh Institute of Planners, 2, 116–125. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-2075-9363/land-information-system-lis-land-administration-and-management

[8] Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2020). BTI 2020 Country Report Bangladesh. Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/bti-2020-country-report-bangladesh USAID. (2010). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Bangladesh [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1287item1315/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[9] Islam, M., Moula, G., & Islam, S. (2015). Land Rights, Land Disputes and Land Administration in Bangladesh—A Critical Study. Beijing Law Review, 6(3), 720–726. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-104236blr201563019/land-rights-land-disputes-and-land-administration

[10] Hasnat, G. N. T., Siddik, Md. A., & Zaman, A. K. M. M. (2018). Historical Evolution of Land Administration in Bangladesh. International Journal of Innovative Research, 3(3), 73–82. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-2520-5919/historical-evolution-land-administration-bangladesh IFRC. (2017). Disaster Law Housing, Land and Property Mapping Project: Bangladesh. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. https://landportal.org/library/resources/housing-land-and-property-law-bangladesh

[11]USAID. (2010). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Bangladesh [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1287item1315/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[12] IFRC. (2017). Disaster Law Housing, Land and Property Mapping Project: Bangladesh. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. https://landportal.org/library/resources/housing-land-and-property-law-bangladesh LANDac. (2016). Food Security and Land Governance Factsheet: Bangladesh. LANDac. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landac-bangladesh-factsheet-%E2%80%93-2016

[13] Ehsanul Haque Jasim (2023): New land management law coming. In: Bangladesh Post. 9 January. URL: https://bangladeshpost.net/posts/new-land-management-law-coming-103274

[14] LANDac. (2016). Food Security and Land Governance Factsheet: Bangladesh. LANDac. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landac-bangladesh-factsheet-%E2%80%93-2016

[15] Ministry of Land. (2016). Input of the MoL for the ‘Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 formulation Project’. Ministry of Land. https://landportal.org/library/resources/input-mol-%E2%80%98bangladesh-delta-plan-2100-formulation-project%E2%80%99

[16] IFRC. (2017). Disaster Law Housing, Land and Property Mapping Project: Bangladesh. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. https://landportal.org/library/resources/housing-land-and-property-law-bangladesh

[17] Masum, F. (2017). Rural Land Management in Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects. Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape, 4, 79–93. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpdxdoiorg1015576gll2017479/rural-land-management-bangladesh

[18] LANDac. (2016). Food Security and Land Governance Factsheet: Bangladesh. LANDac. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landac-bangladesh-factsheet-%E2%80%93-2016

[19] Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2020). BTI 2020 Country Report Bangladesh. Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/bti-2020-country-report-bangladesh

[20] Ministry of Planning. (2019). Preliminary Report on Agriculture Census 2019. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. https://landportal.org/library/resources/isbn-978-984-34-7554-1/preliminary-report-agricultural-census-2019

[21] Islam, M., Moula, G., & Islam, S. (2015). Land Rights, Land Disputes and Land Administration in Bangladesh—A Critical Study. Beijing Law Review, 6(3), 720–726. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-104236blr201563019/land-rights-land-disputes-and-land-administration LANDac. (2016). Food Security and Land Governance Factsheet: Bangladesh. LANDac. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landac-bangladesh-factsheet-%E2%80%93-2016

[22] Masum, F. (2017). Rural Land Management in Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects. Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape, 4, 79–93. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpdxdoiorg1015576gll2017479/rural-land-management-bangladesh

[23]FAO. (2010). Eroding Rivers, Eroding Livelihoods in Bangladesh. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation; UN-Habitat. https://landportal.org/library/resources/eroding-rivers-eroding-livelihoods-bangladesh

[24]Hasan, M. I. (2017). Land administration in Bangladesh: Problems and analytical approach to solution. International Journal of Law, 3(2), 44–49. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-2455-2194-rjif-512/land-administration-bangladesh-problems-and-analytical IFRC. (2017). Disaster Law Housing, Land and Property Mapping Project: Bangladesh. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. https://landportal.org/library/resources/housing-land-and-property-law-bangladesh Islam, M., Moula, G., & Islam, S. (2015). Land Rights, Land Disputes and Land Administration in Bangladesh—A Critical Study. Beijing Law Review, 6(3), 720–726. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-104236blr201563019/land-rights-land-disputes-and-land-administration Masum, F. (2017). Rural Land Management in Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects. Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape, 4, 79–93. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpdxdoiorg1015576gll2017479/rural-land-management-bangladesh Nahrin, K., & Rahman, M. S.-U. (2009). Land Information System (LIS) for Land Administration and Management in Bangladesh. Journal of Bangladesh Institute of Planners, 2, 116–125. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-2075-9363/land-information-system-lis-land-administration-and-management

[25]Masum, F. (2017). Rural Land Management in Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects. Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape, 4, 79–93. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpdxdoiorg1015576gll2017479/rural-land-management-bangladesh

[26]FAO. (2010). Eroding Rivers, Eroding Livelihoods in Bangladesh. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation; UN-Habitat. https://landportal.org/library/resources/eroding-rivers-eroding-livelihoods-bangladesh

[27]FAOSTAT. (2020). FAOSTAT database. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/

[28]World Bank. (2020). World Bank Open Data. The World Bank: Working for a World Free of Poverty. https://data.worldbank.org/

[29]World Bank (2023): World Bank Open Data. Bangladesh. URL: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS?locations=BD

[30]Global Forest Watch. 2023. By Country: Bangladesh. URL: https://gfw.global/3qyoLcp

[31]Hasan, S. S., Deng, X., Li, Z., & Chen, D. (2017). Projections of Future Land Use in Bangladesh under the Background of Baseline, Ecological Protection and Economic Development. Sustainability, 9(4), 505. https://landportal.org/library/resources/sustainability-2017-94-505-httpsdoiorg103390su9040505/projections-future-land-use

[32]Masum, F. (2017). Rural Land Management in Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects. Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape, 4, 79–93. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpdxdoiorg1015576gll2017479/rural-land-management-bangladesh USAID. (2010). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Bangladesh [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1287item1315/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[33]LANDac. (2016). Food Security and Land Governance Factsheet: Bangladesh. LANDac. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landac-bangladesh-factsheet-%E2%80%93-2016

[34]Abbas Uddin Noyon & Jahir Rayhan . (2023, March 11). Beza will add $40b to the economy by 2030. The Business Standard. https://www.tbsnews.net/economy/beza-will-add-40b-economy-2030-597686

[35]IFRC. (2017). Disaster Law Housing, Land and Property Mapping Project: Bangladesh. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. https://landportal.org/library/resources/housing-land-and-property-law-bangladesh

[36]Saleh, M. F. (2015). Drawbacks of land administration system in Bangladesh and some feasible solutions. Bangladesh Law Digest. https://landportal.org/library/resources/drawbacks-land-administration-system-bangladesh-and-some-feasible-solutions

[37]Masum, F. (2017). Rural Land Management in Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects. Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape, 4, 79–93. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpdxdoiorg1015576gll2017479/rural-land-management-bangladesh

[38]LANDac. (2016). Food Security and Land Governance Factsheet: Bangladesh. LANDac. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landac-bangladesh-factsheet-%E2%80%93-2016

[39]Islam, M., Moula, G., & Islam, S. (2015). Land Rights, Land Disputes and Land Administration in Bangladesh—A Critical Study. Beijing Law Review, 6(3), 720–726. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-104236blr201563019/land-rights-land-disputes-and-land-administration

[40]USAID. (2010). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Bangladesh [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1287item1315/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[41]Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2020). BTI 2020 Country Report Bangladesh. Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/bti-2020-country-report-bangladesh

[42]LANDac. (2016). Food Security and Land Governance Factsheet: Bangladesh. LANDac. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landac-bangladesh-factsheet-%E2%80%93-2016

[43]Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2020). BTI 2020 Country Report Bangladesh. Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/bti-2020-country-report-bangladesh

[44]Masum, F. (2017). Rural Land Management in Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects. Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape, 4, 79–93. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpdxdoiorg1015576gll2017479/rural-land-management-bangladesh

[45]Ibid

[46]FAO. (2010). Eroding Rivers, Eroding Livelihoods in Bangladesh. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation; UN-Habitat. https://landportal.org/library/resources/eroding-rivers-eroding-livelihoods-bangladesh

[47]IFRC. (2017). Disaster Law Housing, Land and Property Mapping Project: Bangladesh. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. https://landportal.org/library/resources/housing-land-and-property-law-bangladesh LANDac. (2016). Food Security and Land Governance Factsheet: Bangladesh. LANDac. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landac-bangladesh-factsheet-%E2%80%93-2016 Masum, F. (2017). Rural Land Management in Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects. Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape, 4, 79–93. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpdxdoiorg1015576gll2017479/rural-land-management-bangladesh

[48]Baffoe, Gideon & Roy, Shilpi (2023). Colonial legacies and contemporary urban planning practices in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Planning Perspectives 38:1. https://landportal.org/news/2023/06/exploring-secure-tenure-urban-bangladesh

[49]UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2020). World Urbanisation Prospects. World Urbanization Prospects. https://population.un.org/wup/

[50]Hasan, S. S., Deng, X., Li, Z., & Chen, D. (2017). Projections of Future Land Use in Bangladesh under the Background of Baseline, Ecological Protection and Economic Development. Sustainability, 9(4), 505. https://landportal.org/library/resources/sustainability-2017-94-505-httpsdoiorg103390su9040505/projections-future-land-use

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