Brunei - Context and Land Governance

^{Photo: Bernard Spragg (CC0 1.0)}

Present-day Brunei occupies the north-west coast of Borneo. It is 5,765km2, which is roughly eight times the size of Singapore⁶.  There are two areas, separated by the valley of the Limbang River that is part of Sarawak, Malaysia⁷, although they are now connected via the Temburong Bridge. The two areas comprise four districts. In the west, Brunei-Muara, Tutong and Belait contain hilly lowlands, swampland, and alluvial valleys. Temburong in the east is more mountainous, the highest peak being Bukit Pagon at 1,850m. There is 161km of coastline providing a rich tropical marine biodiversity⁸.

Brunei is classified as a high-income country under World Bank measures. It has prospered through an abundance of oil and natural gas, which account for 90% of exports and just over half of GDP⁹.  A small population of around 460,000 people, which includes foreign residents, commands a 2019 per capita income of 31,087 USD (current prices)¹⁰.  Despite a questionable human rights record, wealth through oil has brought considerable social security and stability¹¹.  However, there have long been fears over economic fragility in this dependence on oil and gas. The Wawasan Brunei 2035 (national vision) looks towards a more diverse and sustainable economy, facilitated through the development of skilled labour¹². 

Land legislation and regulations

The Brunei legal system follows English Common Law, although this is superseded by Sharia Law in many areas for the Islamic population. The 1959 Constitution achieved internal self-governance, including land administration¹³.  Land registration is based on the Torrens system, and principally governed by the 1909 Land Code¹⁴.  This established principles of land alienation. Land ownership, use, and planning is under strict central control, with ultimate authority in the hands of the Sultan and his cabinet. All land is fundamentally state land, with the state able to enforce eminent domain. Other significant laws relating to land development are:

• Land Code (Strata) Act (2000, amended 2009) governs land subdivision in vertical units, thereby supporting planning for high-rise residential buildings¹⁵. 
• Town and Country Planning Act (1972 amended 1984) is the principle act regulating a land use planning and development system.
• Land Acquisition Act 1909 (revised 1984)  states that land can be acquired for public purposes, for the construction of residential areas, factories, or public utilities (section 3(1)).

The Forest Act (1934, latest revision 2013) is the main legal mechanism to administer, protect and restore forest areas in Brunei¹⁶.  It is supported by National Forestry Policy and Environmental Protection and Management Order 2016.

The Ministry of Development is the principal agency involved in land governance in Brunei. Here are found the Lands Department; Housing Development Department; Survey Department; Department of Town and Country Planning; and Department of Environment, Parks and Recreation. District and municipal-level decision-making is controlled through the Ministry of Home Affairs. The Ministry of Primary Resources and Tourism contains departments for Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries.

Urban development is framed around master plans, the second and latest being the National Land Use Master Plan 2006-2025 (NLUMP)¹⁷.  This includes policy to limit urban spatial growth, using high density housing¹⁸.  The plan is meant to inform activities undertaken at district and local levels, even though the Master Plan in itself is non-statutory¹⁹.  Nevertheless, it gains legitimacy through alignment with the national vision for Brunei (Wawasan Brunei 2035)²⁰. 

Land tenure classifications

Nearly all land in Brunei belongs to the state, who retain the ability to enforce eminent domain²¹.  Only around 20% of all land is alienated, under the following tenure classifications:

• Extract from District Registration (EDR) is a formal freehold title. It includes just under 6% of all land in Brunei (47% of this portion is found in the urban district of Brunei Muara)²².  However, since 1955, applications for EDR were suspended, giving preference to TOLs.
• A Temporary Occupation Licence (TOL) is normally held for five years, and allows for use of state land with agricultural, commercial, housing or industrial purposes. Such land covers around 20% of the country, the licence prohibiting sale or sub-division²³.  After 1992, it was possible to upgrade a TOL under residential status into a full title. However, since 2008, TOLs are only permitted for industrial, commercial and private school needs²⁴.
• A commercial lease may be granted for up to 99 years.
• A Stata Title offers leases on units within a building for up to 99 years²⁵. 

The Brunei government has implemented national housing schemes to provide cost effective and inclusive housing²⁶.  By 2019, the home ownership rate stood at 66%, with a target set to reach 85% by 2035^27.  

According to the Nationality Status Act of 1961 and the Constitution, the Malay-based nationality of Brunei (66% of the total population) comprises seven ethnic groups, namely Melayu Brunei, Kedayan, Murut, Melayu Tutong, Melayu Belait, Dusun and Bisaya²⁸.  Other resident groups, such as ethnic Chinese community and ethnic Iban and Penan groups, are not afforded the same rights connected to housing, demarcation of lands, and participation over state decisions on the lands where they are present²⁹.  Under the Nationality Status Act of 1961, permanent residents can in theory apply for citizenship, yet this is a cumbersome bureaucratic process³⁰. 

Land use trends

FAO calculates that in 2017, 72% of the total land area of 5,765km2 was forest cover³¹.  69% of this forest is primary, and nearly all the rest is naturally regenerated. Such an extent of forest is impressive, reflecting a focus on conservation and management rather than exploitation. However, the figures are disputed, with one 2014 study estimating intact forests at around 56.9%³².  Despite the small size of Brunei, there are an estimated 15,000 species of vascular plants and over 2,000 species of trees³³.  There are three main forest reserves, namely Pulau Selirong Forest Reserve, Ulu Temburong National Park and Berakas Forest Reserve. Extensive peatland is also found within Brunei. One reason that primary forest remains high is that economic production has focussed on offshore reserves of oil and gas, limiting land-based resource exploitation. This partially explains the reason why less than 3% of land is used for agriculture, contributing 1% of GDP. Brunei is dependent upon food imports, particularly rice, and so there have been calls to extend agricultural land use to improve food security³⁴.  Until the present day this has only resulted in a small increase of land use, from 1.9% at the end of the 1990s.

The bulk of the population of Brunei is urban, comprising 78.2% in 2020³⁵.  This is the second highest proportion found in Southeast Asia, after Singapore³⁶.  Most people live in the capital of Bandar Seri Begawan in Brunei-Muara district, where the greatest focus around land use involves housing developments. Brunei also claims two maritime areas, namely the Louisa Reef (also claimed by Malaysia) and Rifleman Bank³⁷.  This places it within ongoing conflicts in the South China Seas.

^{Muara, Brunei, photo by Lucas Migliorelli, CC-BY-3.0 license}

Land investments and acquisitions

The Brunei government has been trying to attract Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) as a means to diversify away from reliance on oil and gas, and strengthen the private sector³⁸.  Foreign enterprises may access land through a joint venture with a domestic company or through formally registering themselves as an overseas incorporated company³⁹.  On the whole, only Brunei citizens may own landed property, although foreign ownership may be possible with the approval of the Sultan. It is also possible for foreigners to own strata units. Registered companies, both domestic and foreign, are able to register as a lessee of residential, commercial or industrial property, following the Land Code⁴⁰.  If over 7 years, they must have the approval of the Sultan. The Land Acquisition Act (section 3) allows for the use of reserve lands for public utilities and infrastructure development⁴¹.  Nevertheless, the lack of land availability (as a small country) combined with a cumbersome bureaucracy has made it difficult for Brunei to attract FDI⁴².

Recent large-scale infrastructure projects include the building of Brunei Muara-Temburong Bridge, which opened in March 2020, the modernisation of Brunei International Airport, completed in 2015, and an oil refinery and petrochemical complex on the island of Pulau Muara Besar⁴³. There are also numerous public housing developments, including seven sites in Brunei-Muara district, to which landless Brunei citizens can apply⁴⁴.  In 2016, a commercial court was set up to handle disputes over contracts, exports and imports. This includes activities by foreign and domestic investors, and the land upon which they operate.

Women’s land rights

In a 2019 ranking of gender inequality in Brunei, it was noted that 69% of women reach secondary level of education compared to 70.6% of men⁴⁵.  However, women only hold three parliamentary seats, which is 9% of all seats⁴⁶.  Furthermore, Brunei has the worst gender income gap in the ASEAN region where the earnings of women are 39% worse off than men⁴⁷.  Nevertheless, a recent report from the Ministry of Finance claims that there is no gender discrimination in relation to ownership of land, business, or other assets, as set out in Section 23 of the Land Code⁴⁸.  The report asserts that there is equal access by law to agricultural land.

Women’s issues are given attention through the Special Committee on Family Institutions, Women and Children, under the National Council on Social Issues (MKIS)⁴⁹.  It has devised a Plan of Action in accordance with the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). This plan involves coordination with NGOs at grassroots level, and priority areas of work include the promotion and protection of rights, healthcare, economic empowerment, employment and work life balance.

Voluntary Guidelines on Responsible Tenure (VGGT)

Brunei has not yet endorsed the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security. Although FAO has no formal representation in Brunei, it has worked in the country on projects looking at food security and helping to formulate a vision for the agricultural and forestry sectors⁵⁰.  Rice has been a crop of focus in these endeavours.

^{Brunei, land of constrast, photo by Bernard Spragg, CC-0 license}

Timeline - milestones in land governace

1909 – Promulgation of Land Code
The Land Code established principles of land alienation using a Torrens System

1959 – Constitution
Brunei achieved internal self-governance, including that of a land administration

1972 – Promulgation of Town and Country Planning Act (amended 1984)
The principle act regulating a land use planning and development system

1984 – Independence
Brunei achieved full independence after turning down an opportunity to join the Federation of Malaya

2014 – Adoption of Sharia Law
Brunei is the first country in East Asia to do so

2017 – 72% of total land area is forest
With wealth acquired through offshore oil, Brunei’s forest have survived significant exploitation

2019 – Home ownership rate at 66%
There is a target to reach 85% by 2035

2020 – Opening of Brunei Muara-Temburong Bridge

Where to go next?

The author's suggestion for further reading

The review paper Brunei in 2016 The Sultan is not Amused by Dominik Müller is a useful entry point for a general perspective on recent political, legal, and economic developments in Brunei, with some linkages to land-related topics⁵¹.  The law firms JLL and Pengiran Izad & Lee have produced a Property Investment Guide, which includes a useful overview of the land tenure and administration system in Brunei⁵².  The article Land Use Pattern Of Private Housing Development Since Land Use Pattern Of Private Housing Development Since The Introduction Of Bruneiʼs Compact Strategy by Hamzah and Urayama gives important information on the planning and development system in Brunei, particularly in the context of urbanisation processes⁵³.  This connects well with the Policy Framework 2018-23 by the Ministry of Development, including details on land use, infrastructure, and services⁵⁴.  Finally, Shams et al. provide an interesting perspective on agriculture, food security and climate change⁵⁵. 

***References

[1] Crosbie, A. J. (1978). BRUNEI: The Constraints on a Small State. Southeast Asian Affairs (1978), 67–79.
Harme, S. J. (2019). Borneo vs Kalimantan. What’s In A Name? The Rakyat Post (TRP). https://www.therakyatpost.com/2019/12/20/borneo-vs-kalimantan-whats-in-a-name/

[2] Government of Brunei. (2005). Country Facts: Brunei Darussalam. Permanent Mission of Brunei Darussalam to the United Nations. https://www.un.int/brunei/brunei/country-facts

[3] Müller, D. M. (2017). Brunei Darussalam in 2016: The Sultan Is Not Amused. Asian Survey, 57(1), 199–205. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-0004-4687-electronic-issn-1533-838x/brunei-darussalam-2016

[4] Black, A. (2008). Ideology and Law: The Impact of the MIB Ideology on Law and Dispute Resolution in the Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam. Asian Journal of Comparative Law, 3(1). https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-1022021932-02051059/ideology-and-law-impact-mib-ideology-law-and-dispute

[5] AHA Centre, & JICA. (2015). Country Report Brunei: Natural Disaster Risk Assessment and Area Business Continuity Plan Formulation for Industrial Agglomerated Areas in the ASEAN Region. AHA Centre and Japan International Cooperation Agency. https://landportal.org/library/resources/country-report-brunei

[6] CIA. (2020). The World Factbook: Brunei. Central Intelligence Agency Library. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bx.html

[7] FAO. (2011). Country profile – Brunei Darussalam (FAO Aquastat Reports). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://landportal.org/library/resources/country-profile-%E2%80%93-brunei-darussalam

[8] MOFE. (2020). 2020 United Nations High-Level Political Forum for Sustainable Development: Voluntary National Review Report of Brunei Darussalam. Ministry of Finance and Economy. https://landportal.org/library/resources/2020-united-nations-high-level-political-forum-sustainable-development-voluntary

[9] Müller, D. M. (2017). Brunei Darussalam in 2016: The Sultan Is Not Amused. Asian Survey, 57(1), 199–205. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-0004-4687-electronic-issn-1533-838x/brunei-darussalam-2016

Shams, S., Shafiuddin, K. H., Sultan, A. M. S. B. H. M., & Juani, R. B. H. Md. (2015). Agriculture Adaptation to Climate Change in Brunei Darussalam: A Step towards Food Security. Environment and Urbanization ASIA, 6(1), 59–70.

[10] World Bank. (2020). World Bank Open Data. The World Bank: Working for a World Free of Poverty. https://data.worldbank.org/

[11] Müller, D. M. (2017). Brunei Darussalam in 2016: The Sultan Is Not Amused. Asian Survey, 57(1), 199–205. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-0004-4687-electronic-issn-1533-838x/brunei-darussalam-2016

[12] Shams, S., Shafiuddin, K. H., Sultan, A. M. S. B. H. M., & Juani, R. B. H. Md. (2015). Agriculture Adaptation to Climate Change in Brunei Darussalam: A Step towards Food Security. Environment and Urbanization ASIA, 6(1), 59–70.

[13] Hussin, K. B., Suratman, R., & Piut, P. H. B. P. H. (2018). Efficient and effective land reservation implementation for good-governance in LAS: A case for Brunei Darussalam. International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 7(2.29), 754–761. https://landportal.org/library/resources/article-id-14011/efficient-and-effective-land-reservation-implementation-good

[14] Piut, P. H. B. P. H. (2019). Land Governance in Brunei Darussalam: Thesis proposal. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. https://landportal.org/library/resources/id-code-81696/land-governance-brunei-darussalam

[15] Hamzah, H. H. B. H. (2017). A Study on Promoting Land Readjustment in Support of Compact Strategy for Efficient Urban Development in South East Asia—Case Study of Brunei. Mie University. https://landportal.org/library/resources/study-promoting-land-readjustment-support-compact-strategy-efficient-urban

[16] MOFE. (2020). 2020 United Nations High-Level Political Forum for Sustainable Development: Voluntary National Review Report of Brunei Darussalam. Ministry of Finance and Economy. https://landportal.org/library/resources/2020-united-nations-high-level-political-forum-sustainable-development-voluntary

[17] Hamzah, H. H., & Urayama, M. (2017). Land Use Pattern of Private Housing Development Since the Introduction of Brunei’s Compact Strategy. Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ), 82(733), 705–714. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-use-pattern-private-housing-development-introduction-bruneis-compact-strategy

[18] Ng, M., Shabrina, Z., & Buyuklieva, B. (2019). Characterising Land Cover Change in Brunei Darussalam’s Capital District. Preprint Version. https://landportal.org/library/resources/characterising-land-cover-change-brunei-darussalam%E2%80%99s-capital-district

[19] Hamzah, H. H., & Urayama, M. (2017). Land Use Pattern of Private Housing Development Since the Introduction of Brunei’s Compact Strategy. Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ), 82(733), 705–714. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-use-pattern-private-housing-development-introduction-bruneis-compact-strategy

[20] Piut, P. H. B. P. H. (2019). Land Governance in Brunei Darussalam: Thesis proposal. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. https://landportal.org/library/resources/id-code-81696/land-governance-brunei-darussalam

[21] Becek, K. (2011). Cadastral maps as a basis for developing street maps: Examples from Australia and Brunei. 3rd Cadastral Congress, Warsaw, Poland. https://landportal.org/library/resources/cadastral-maps-basis-developing-street-maps-examples-australia-and-brunei
Piut, P. H. B. P. H. (2019). Land Governance in Brunei Darussalam: Thesis proposal. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. https://landportal.org/library/resources/id-code-81696/land-governance-brunei-darussalam

[22] MoD. (2020). Home—Lands Department. Lands Department, Ministry of Development. http://www.tanah.gov.bn/Theme/Home.aspx
MPRT. (2020). Relevant Legislation. Forestry Department, Ministry of Primary Resources and Tourism. http://www.forestry.gov.bn/SitePages/Relevant%20Legislation.aspx

[23] Becek, K. (2011). Cadastral maps as a basis for developing street maps: Examples from Australia and Brunei. 3rd Cadastral Congress, Warsaw, Poland. https://landportal.org/library/resources/cadastral-maps-basis-developing-street-maps-examples-australia-and-brunei
Piut, P. H. B. P. H. (2019). Land Governance in Brunei Darussalam: Thesis proposal. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. https://landportal.org/library/resources/id-code-81696/land-governance-brunei-darussalam

[24] Piut, P. H. B. P. H. (2019). Land Governance in Brunei Darussalam: Thesis proposal. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. https://landportal.org/library/resources/id-code-81696/land-governance-brunei-darussalam

[25] JLL, & Pengiran, Izad & Lee. (2016). Brunei Property Investment Guide. JLL & Messrs Pengiran Izad & Lee Advocates & Solicitors. https://landportal.org/library/resources/brunei-property-investment-guide

[26] MoD. (2018). Ministry of Development Policy Framework 2018—2023. Policy Coordination and Strategic Planning Division, Ministry of Development. https://landportal.org/library/resources/isbn-978-99917-986-0-8/ministry-development-policy-framework-2018-2023
Piut, P. H. B. P. H. (2019). Land Governance in Brunei Darussalam: Thesis proposal. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. https://landportal.org/library/resources/id-code-81696/land-governance-brunei-darussalam

[27] MOFE. (2020). 2020 United Nations High-Level Political Forum for Sustainable Development: Voluntary National Review Report of Brunei Darussalam. Ministry of Finance and Economy. https://landportal.org/library/resources/2020-united-nations-high-level-political-forum-sustainable-development-voluntary

[28] Black, A. (2008). Ideology and Law: The Impact of the MIB Ideology on Law and Dispute Resolution in the Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam. Asian Journal of Comparative Law, 3(1). https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-1022021932-02051059/ideology-and-law-impact-mib-ideology-law-and-dispute
Müller, D. M. (2017). Brunei Darussalam in 2016: The Sultan Is Not Amused. Asian Survey, 57(1), 199–205. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-0004-4687-electronic-issn-1533-838x/brunei-darussalam-2016

[29] DRL. (2019). Brunei 2019 Human Rights Report. The Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor - United States Department of State. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/BRUNEI-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf

[30] Müller, D. M. (2017). Brunei Darussalam in 2016: The Sultan Is Not Amused. Asian Survey, 57(1), 199–205. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-0004-4687-electronic-issn-1533-838x/brunei-darussalam-2016

[31] FAOSTAT. (2020). FAOSTAT database. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/

[32] Gaveau, D. L. A., Sloan, S., Molidena, E., Yaen, H., Sheil, D., Abram, N. K., Ancrenaz, M., Nasi, R., Quinones, M., Wielaard, N., & Meijaard, E. (2014). Four Decades of Forest Persistence, Clearance and Logging on Borneo. PLOS ONE, 9(7), e101654. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi101371journalpone0101654/four-decades-forest-persistence-clearance-and-logging

[33] MOFE. (2020). 2020 United Nations High-Level Political Forum for Sustainable Development: Voluntary National Review Report of Brunei Darussalam. Ministry of Finance and Economy. https://landportal.org/library/resources/2020-united-nations-high-level-political-forum-sustainable-development-voluntary

[34] Shams, S., Shafiuddin, K. H., Sultan, A. M. S. B. H. M., & Juani, R. B. H. Md. (2015). Agriculture Adaptation to Climate Change in Brunei Darussalam: A Step towards Food Security. Environment and Urbanization ASIA, 6(1), 59–70.

[35] UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2020). World Urbanisation Prospects. World Urbanization Prospects. https://population.un.org/wup/

[36] Hamzah, H. H., & Urayama, M. (2017). Land Use Pattern of Private Housing Development Since the Introduction of Brunei’s Compact Strategy. Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ), 82(733), 705–714. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-use-pattern-private-housing-development-introduction-bruneis-compact-strategy

[37] Singh, T. (2012). South China Sea: Emerging Security Architecture. Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies. https://landportal.org/library/resources/eldisa67873/south-china-sea-emerging-security-architecture

[38] AHA Centre, & JICA. (2015). Country Report Brunei: Natural Disaster Risk Assessment and Area Business Continuity Plan Formulation for Industrial Agglomerated Areas in the ASEAN Region. AHA Centre and Japan International Cooperation Agency. https://landportal.org/library/resources/country-report-brunei
MOFE. (2020). 2020 United Nations High-Level Political Forum for Sustainable Development: Voluntary National Review Report of Brunei Darussalam. Ministry of Finance and Economy. https://landportal.org/library/resources/2020-united-nations-high-level-political-forum-sustainable-development-voluntary

[39] JLL, & Pengiran, Izad & Lee. (2016). Brunei Property Investment Guide. JLL & Messrs Pengiran Izad & Lee Advocates & Solicitors. https://landportal.org/library/resources/brunei-property-investment-guide

[40] Hussin, K. B., Suratman, R., & Piut, P. H. B. P. H. (2018). Efficient and effective land reservation implementation for good-governance in LAS: A case for Brunei Darussalam. International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 7(2.29), 754–761. https://landportal.org/library/resources/article-id-14011/efficient-and-effective-land-reservation-implementation-good

[41] ibid

[42] Piut, P. H. B. P. H. (2019). Land Governance in Brunei Darussalam: Thesis proposal. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. https://landportal.org/library/resources/id-code-81696/land-governance-brunei-darussalam

[43] MOFE. (2020). 2020 United Nations High-Level Political Forum for Sustainable Development: Voluntary National Review Report of Brunei Darussalam. Ministry of Finance and Economy. https://landportal.org/library/resources/2020-united-nations-high-level-political-forum-sustainable-development-voluntary
Müller, D. M. (2017). Brunei Darussalam in 2016: The Sultan Is Not Amused. Asian Survey, 57(1), 199–205. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-0004-4687-electronic-issn-1533-838x/brunei-darussalam-2016

[44] Hamzah, H. H. B. H. (2017). A Study on Promoting Land Readjustment in Support of Compact Strategy for Efficient Urban Development in South East Asia—Case Study of Brunei. Mie University. https://landportal.org/library/resources/study-promoting-land-readjustment-support-compact-strategy-efficient-urban
MOFE. (2020). 2020 United Nations High-Level Political Forum for Sustainable Development: Voluntary National Review Report of Brunei Darussalam. Ministry of Finance and Economy. https://landportal.org/library/resources/2020-united-nations-high-level-political-forum-sustainable-development-voluntary

[45] UNDP. (2019). Human Development Report 2019 Brunei. United Nations Development Programme. http://www.hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/BRN.pdf

[46] MOFE. (2020). 2020 United Nations High-Level Political Forum for Sustainable Development: Voluntary National Review Report of Brunei Darussalam. Ministry of Finance and Economy. https://landportal.org/library/resources/2020-united-nations-high-level-political-forum-sustainable-development-voluntary

[47] Elias, J. (2020). The Gendered Political Economy of Southeast Asian Development. In T. Carroll, S. Hameiri, & L. Jones (Eds.), The Political Economy of Southeast Asia: Politics and Uneven Development under Hyperglobalisation (Fourth edition). Palgrave Macmillan.

[48] MOFE. (2020). 2020 United Nations High-Level Political Forum for Sustainable Development: Voluntary National Review Report of Brunei Darussalam. Ministry of Finance and Economy. https://landportal.org/library/resources/2020-united-nations-high-level-political-forum-sustainable-development-voluntary

[49] ibid

[50] FAO. (2020). Brunei Darussalam. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/index/en/?iso3=BRN

[51] Müller, D. M. (2017). Brunei Darussalam in 2016: The Sultan Is Not Amused. Asian Survey, 57(1), 199–205. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-0004-4687-electronic-issn-1533-838x/brunei-darussalam-2016

[52] JLL, & Pengiran, Izad & Lee. (2016). Brunei Property Investment Guide. JLL & Messrs Pengiran Izad & Lee Advocates & Solicitors. https://landportal.org/library/resources/brunei-property-investment-guide

[53] Hamzah, H. H., & Urayama, M. (2017). Land Use Pattern of Private Housing Development Since the Introduction of Brunei’s Compact Strategy. Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ), 82(733), 705–714. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-use-pattern-private-housing-development-introduction-bruneis-compact-strategy

[54] MoD. (2018). Ministry of Development Policy Framework 2018—2023. Policy Coordination and Strategic Planning Division, Ministry of Development. https://landportal.org/library/resources/isbn-978-99917-986-0-8/ministry-development-policy-framework-2018-2023

[55] Shams, S., Shafiuddin, K. H., Sultan, A. M. S. B. H. M., & Juani, R. B. H. Md. (2015). Agriculture Adaptation to Climate Change in Brunei Darussalam: A Step towards Food Security. Environment and Urbanization ASIA, 6(1), 59–70.