German nobility took an important role in Livonia, Estonia and Courland territorial development. During from the period 1870-1913 Riga was the largest export port in Russia province with 550 thousand inhabitants. Towns and large rural population difference resulted Latvian strongly developed agriculture, industry and urbanization. Strong turbulence time began with the year 1905, followed by years of war, and finally in 20 years of the 20th century the agrarian land reform ended in Estonia, Livonia and Latvia.

Nitrogen leaching from agriculture contributes to contamination of Lake Taupo. Multiple criteria decision making was used to compare fourteen pre-defined farming systems which reduced, or maintained nitrogen losses. Case study participants included three to four each of Maori Incorporation representatives, owner-operators, Environment Waikato employees, and researchers. The total group identified criteria that were important in choosing between the systems. Profit and nitrogen outputs were provided for the systems.

The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) has continued to be fiercely debated between North and South, particularly with respect to its provisions for the agricultural sector. Article 27.3(b) of the TRIPS Agreement requires WTO member countries to offer some form of intellectual property protection for new plant varieties, either in the form of patents (common in the U.S.) or plant breeder’s rights (PBR).

Agri-environment schemes (AES) are central to the conservation of Europe's farmland biodiversity. The UK Government's Public Service Agreement target seeks to reverse the decline of farmland birds in England by 2020 through the use of AES. The Entry Level Stewardship (ELS) scheme, introduced in 2005, is the first non-competitive, broad-uptake stewardship scheme designed to deliver simple but effective environmental management on farms throughout England.

Climate change, food crises and deterioration of the environment create immense challenges in water management. In the Netherlands land subsidence, high population density and intensity of land use aggravate these problems. Increased awareness of these problems and civil society's participation in the discussions complicate these challenges. The Netherlands' Government Service for Land and Water Management (DLG), an organisation specialising in integrated land development, has tackled these problems at a regional/local scale.

Sustainability of agricultural land use is determined by economic and environmental characteristics of land resources. The method for land use assessing, which enables to determine the type of its environmental and economic status (EES), was developed. The method includes the calculation of performance indicators, drafting the scale and the determination of the cumulative EES for land.

The aim of this paper is to set-up the algorithm for determining the degree of workabilityof the soil, to help the owners of family farms to plan working hours of agricultural machines, i.e.with the machine park management. The plans, which would be made by use of these algorithmsand based on the accurate information of the cultivation conditions, would result in the appropriateuse of time and capacity of the agricultural machines. In some sectors, such as agriculture or certainindustries, chance that certain event occurs plays a very important role.

Land-use and vegetation cover have been linked to the nutrient levels (nitrogen, phosphorus) of surface waters in several countries. However, the links generally relate to streams and rivers, or to specific types of standing water, for example shallow lakes in a geologically defined region.

Tajikistan, with 93% of its surface area taken up by mountains and 65% of its labor forceemployed in agriculture, is judged to be highly vulnerable to risks, including climate changerisks and food insecurity risks. The article examines a set of land use policies and practices thatcan be used to mitigate the vulnerability of Tajikistan’s large rural population, primarily byincreasing family incomes. Empirical evidence from Tajikistan and other CIS countries suggeststhat families with more land and higher commercialization earn higher incomes and achievehigher well-being.

The implicit hydrologic dimensions of international efforts to mitigate climate change, specifically potential impacts of the Clean Development Mechanism-Afforestation/Reforestation (CDM-AR) provisions of the Kyoto Protocol (KP) on global, regional and local water cycles, are examined. The global impact of the redistribution of water use driven by agriculture and land use change, of which CDM-AR can be a contributing factor, is a major component of ongoing global change and climate change processes.