Togo - Context and Land Governance

Forest landscape in Togo, photography by pere ubu (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

Although the primary sector contributes only 18.5% of GDP, agriculture employs 65% of the active workforce. Phosphates, non-pulverized cement, cotton, soya, coffee and cocoa feature among Togo's main exports. The secondary sector represents 22.9% of GDP. The economy is mainly based on the tertiary sector (trade, port activities, financial exchanges), which accounts for 58.6% of GDP.² 

In 2022, the country had a population of 8,095,498, 57% of whom live in rural areas³. The country is home to around fifty ethnic groups belonging to five main tribes: the Adja-Ewé, the Kabyè-Tem, the Para-Gourma, the Akposso-Akébou and the Ana-Ifé. In the north of the country, conflicts between transhumant herders and farmers are frequent. Problems of a different kind have arisen more recently. The Savanes region, which borders Burkina Faso, is increasingly "confronted with incursions by jihadist groups" responsible for banditry and terrorist attacks. One notable consequence of this insecurity is the obstruction of the movement of transhumant herds.⁴ 

In terms of land governance, the government has recently brought together the various texts relating to land in a “Land and Domain Code[a][b][c]”⁵ and is trying to facilitate the formalization of customary land rights into property titles. At the same time, the government has launched various projects to stimulate agricultural development and improve yields.

Historical background

Togo was colonized by Germany between 1884 and 1914. With the imperial Decree of 21 November 1902, the German colonizer introduced the land register (known in German as the Grundbuch) and land titles (Grund Akten). Decrees were issued in 1904, 1910 and 1913 to specify how this was to work. Between 1890 and 1900, the German administration also encouraged the development of cocoa, coffee and oil palm crops in south-western Togo.

 At the end of the First World War, Germany lost its colonies, including Togo. The western part of German Togo reverted to Great Britain (which attached it to its Gold Coast colony, now Ghana), while the French administered the eastern part of the country, corresponding to present-day Togo, under a mandate from the League of Nations.⁶ 

With the Decree of 23 December 1922, the French Mandatory Administration introduced the land registry, by virtue of the Decree of 24 July 1906, which had introduced the registration system in the other colonies of French West Africa. In addition, the French pursued the development of the plantation economy and forced the peasantry, who mainly practiced subsistence farming, to devote itself to it. After the Second World War, coffee and cocoa cultivation underwent a "real boom, spurred on by a generalized policy of high purchase prices" and led to a migratory movement towards the south-west region.⁷ 

The German and French colonial administrations saw the south as the only economically viable part of Togo while they tended to regard the north as a mere reservoir of workforce for forced labor. This view artificially accentuated the ethnic divisions between north and south, which were maintained if not reinforced after the country's independence on 27 April 1960.⁸ 

After seizing power in a coup in 1967, Étienne Eyadéma Gnassingbé, known as Gnassingbé Eyadéma, ruled the country for almost 40 years. When he died in 2005, his son Faure Gnassingbé became president. He is currently serving his fourth term. The introduction of multi-party elections in the 1990s did not fundamentally alter the authoritarian tendencies of the ruling regime.⁹

Land legislation and regulations

Although land legislation is still tainted by the colonial legacy, a particular feature of the Togolese system is the recognition of customary rights. 

German colonization did not last long enough for the registration system to be implemented in the country’s hinterland. Subsequently, the League of Nations required the French to "take into consideration indigenous laws and customs", at a time when French doctrine was evolving to also advocate respect for traditional ownership. The Decree of 24 August 1926 recognizes "indigenous" land rights in Togo, enabling customary ownership to be recorded in a land register.¹⁰ 

After independence, the post-colonial government promulgated the law of 5 August 1960, supplemented by the law of 11 January 1961, with the aim of protecting the land ownership of Togolese citizens. 

In 1974, the government carried out a reform to optimize the use of fertile land by creating a national estate. Ordinance no12 on land reform recognized customary rights which, having the same value as land titles, conferred a right of ownership. At the same time, the reform restricted the scope of these customary rights by introducing a presumption of state ownership over uncultivated land. Thus, only land "effectively occupied or necessary for fallow land and population growth" is recognized. Owners of "uncultivated" land were given five years from the date of publication of the ordinance to develop it, failing which the land was transferred to the national land registry. Under the reform, land not cultivated for ten consecutive years is also "considered uncultivated and therefore not eligible for title". The law provides for compensation only in cases of expropriation in the public interest.¹¹ 

Trees in flower in the Togolese savannah, photograph by Guido and Carrara family (CC BY 2.0)

 The State manages the national domain as a collective asset. To "enable farmers who are not landowners to gain access to land," Togo has been setting up planned agricultural development zones (ZAAP) since 1974. In recent years, there has been renewed interest in creating these areas. In 2021-2022, the government added 130 new ZAAPs to the 36 that already existed, covering a total area of 12,608 ha¹². These ZAAPs, each covering around 100 ha, are equipped with irrigation systems, drainage networks, access tracks and other infrastructure. 

Togo has strengthened its land policy by reviewing its legislation to secure land rights in a context of legal dualism. Law no 2018-005 of 14 June 2018 establishing the Land and Domain Code brought together in a single corpus all the legislative texts concerning land since colonial times. The new Code confirmed registration as the best way to certify private property. However, it does not abolish customary rights, which can be recorded in the land register. Although the Code did not make any major changes to existing legislation, the law does provide for the adoption of at least 28 decrees to implement the regulatory framework¹³. The Code also established the Interministerial Commission for Land and Property Reform (CIRFD) and the National Land and Property Agency (ANDF). To simplify administrative practices and reduce registration times, in 2019 the State created a single land agency and appointed a state official in charge of land property (conservateur de la propriété foncière) in each of the country's five regions. 

As mentioned, the Togolese government is not seeking to extinguish customary rights, but rather to formalize them through registration. Despite the efforts made and the simplification of administrative procedures, access to land titles remains low. As of January 2019, only 46,183 land titles had been granted since colonial times, although digitization was "virtually complete, with a rate of 99%".¹⁴

Land tenure classifications

According to Article 1 of Order no. 12 of 6 February 1974, Togo's land tenure system is divided into three categories: "1) land held by customary communities and individuals based on a land title or under customary law [...]; 2) land constituting the public domain and the private domain of the State and local authorities; 3) the national land domain made up of all other land that cannot be classified in either of the categories listed above". This last category refers to "land virtually abandoned to fallow," over which the State was seeking to reclaim ownership in order to redistribute to those who could develop it "according to the principles of modern agronomy."¹⁵ The 2018 Land and Domain Code adopts these categories, while specifying that the national land estate "may no longer incorporate any new buildings."¹⁶

Land use trends

Togo is experiencing a high rate of agricultural expansion (6.4% on average per year), one of the highest in West Africa. As a result, cultivated land has increased from 10% of the country in 1975 to 34% in 2013. The expansion of agricultural areas has taken place at the expense of savannahs and forests, including protected areas where agriculture is in principle prohibited. The size of Togo's forests has halved, even though they represented just 5.9% of the country in 1975¹⁷. The current forest area is 1,209,270 ha¹⁸. It is estimated that Togo loses 3,700 ha of forest annually¹⁹. Protected areas taken as a whole cover 792,345 hectares, but their forest cover is only 10.2%.²⁰

 Climate change is leading to changes in crop production. In some parts of the country, coffee, cocoa and pearl millet can no longer be grown because of changing natural conditions. Other crops, such as soya, cashew nuts and maize, are gaining popularity²¹. In northern Togo, the growth in livestock numbers combined with the shrinking of pastoral areas is leading to conflicts over access to water and fodder.²²

Rural scene, photograph by David Bacon (CC BY 2.0) 

Moreover, open-pit phosphate mining since the 1970s has degraded thousands of hectares of land, with little rehabilitation after extraction. The phosphate industry leads to the destruction of vegetation and the creation of artificial hill landscapes. The resulting bare soils, scattered with piles of mining waste, become unsuitable for agriculture.²³

Land investments and acquisitions

Plantation development in the coastal zone has progressed rapidly in recent decades, "reaching a total area of almost 200 km2 in 2013"²⁴. However, plantation agriculture remains dominated by smallholders.

 According to some estimates, only 84 cases of large-scale land acquisitions took place in Togo between 2000 and 2011. These transactions covered a cumulative area of 7,707 ha, mostly in the agro-industrial sector. Most of the sellers were farmers, while the buyers were mainly senior Togolese executives or businessmen²⁵. Other sources report 53 cases of land acquisitions on 25,000 ha.²⁶ 

Despite their imprecise nature, these figures indicate that large-scale land acquisitions remain a marginal phenomenon in Togo. Rather than targeting the arrival of foreign investors to cultivate land, the government is encouraging the modernization of family farms through various initiatives. One of these is the establishment of the Mechanism to Encourage Agricultural Financing Based on Risk Sharing (Mifa) to improve access to credit for family farmers.

 Another initiative concerns the arrival of the Singaporean group Olam to revitalize cotton production and reorganize the sector. As part of a public-private partnership, in 2021 Olam acquired a 51% stake in the Nouvelle Société Cotonnière du Togo (NSCT), which is responsible for overseeing the production, processing and marketing of cotton, replacing the former state company Société Togolaise de Coton (Sotoco).²⁷ 

The government has also set up the Plateforme Industrielle d'Adétikopé (PIA) to increase local processing, particularly of agricultural products such as cotton, cashew nuts, soya, rice and sesame. The first phase of this industrial estate covers 129 ha, but it is planned to extend to 400 ha. Arise IIP, owned by Olam International and Africa Finance Corporation (AFC), financed the development of the site. ²⁸ 

 Kara region, Togo, photography by Panoramas (CC BY-ND 2.0) 

Finally, as part of Togo's Agrifood Transformation Program, the Kara Agropole was launched in 2018. This agropole, one of ten planned, aims to create planned agricultural development zones (ZAAP), build infrastructure and provide agricultural training²⁹. Under the latest project, the government intends to promote mango cultivation on 700 ha spread across various ZAAPs.³⁰

 Despite these efforts, difficulties remain. Despite Olam's recent investment in NSCT, cotton production dropped by 66% between 2019 and 2023³¹. Furthermore, large-scale State projects sometimes lead to the expropriation of landowners who consider the acquisition process or compensation unfair, as in the case of the Adétikopé Industrial Platform³² or the Djagblé Plain Rural Development Project.³³

Customary land rights

In Togo, under customary law, the first occupants of a place administer the land and land is appropriated through the family or lineage. However, with the development of cash crops during the colonial era in south-west Togo, particularly in the Ewe, Akposso and Akébou territories, different land tenure arrangements to enable migrants to access land emerged and then evolved according to circumstances. These arrangements take the form of a relationship of dependence between indigenous customary landowners who lend land to new arrivals from Kabyè and Nawdeba. 

A first category of contracts is called dibi-madibi, an expression from the Twi language in Ghana which means "you eat a little, I eat a little". There are various variants of this contract, which mainly concern cocoa, coffee and palm plantations. Broadly speaking, it is an agreement between a landowner who entrusts the development of a plot of land to a farmer, who shares the fruits of the harvest with the landowner in varying proportions. In certain instances, the object of the sharing concerns the trees, or the land planted at the end of the contract.³⁴ 

Conflicts are on the increase as the dibi-madibi arrangements are called into question by the descendants of the landowners. Disputes are particularly frequent when the original contract provided for the transfer of ownership of half the cultivated plot to the farmer, rather than the division of harvests or the sharing of trees. Descendants often reclaim their ancestors' land, which has been developed for decades by non-native planters, or reinterpret the terms of the contract to make it more advantageous to them. 

With the increase in land disputes and the scarcity of land, the dibi-madibi has been transformed to avoid the permanent transfer of land outside the lineage. The role of migrant farmers is no longer to create new plantations, but rather "to maintain and harvest an existing orchard, in return for a share of the production"³⁵. Ewe nana contracts are also on the increase. These do not concern plantation crops, but only food crops. One form of nana is similar to a temporary gift from the owner, in return for which the farmer offers occasional gifts. 

Although they do not own the land, customary chiefs continue to play an important role in resolving land disputes. In addition to disputes between natives and migrants, there are many fraud cases and double sales. As many land contracts are concluded orally, customary chiefs are called upon to settle these disputes. Settling land disputes is an opportunity for chiefs to consolidate their legitimacy³⁶. To limit these conflicts and secure the land, the country recently launched a nationwide land census.³⁷

Women's land rights

In Togo, land is mainly transferred through patrilineal descent, thus excluding women from owning and inheriting land. In some cases, however, men who do not have enough land can cultivate a plot in their wife's family through the institution of kolonyigba. This practice, which dates back to colonial times, also enables children to inherit land obtained on the mother's side.³⁸ 

Overall, Togolese women find it easier to access land through loans, gifts or purchases than through customary law³⁹, but even bequest practices seem to be changing. It is becoming increasingly common for men who have given up farming as part of an upward mobility trajectory to cede part of their land to their daughters. Customary chiefs generally guarantee women's rights, despite attempts by other members of the lineage to reclaim the land.⁴⁰ 

In addition, cash crops since colonial times have enabled women to achieve a degree of financial autonomy through remuneration for their work on their husbands' plantations or the trade in cocoa beans in border regions. The emancipatory effect of the cash economy remains limited, however, as it often contributed to increasing the working time that women, deprived of the support of their husbands, devoted to growing food crops. 

Other more recent developments are increasing women's ability to acquire land. Whereas dibi-madibi contracts were mainly between men (plantation crops were generally managed by men), nana arrangements now allow women access to land in exchange for their labor. Other women even have the financial means to buy large plots of land.⁴¹ 

According to the latest available data, most (82.3%) Togolese farming households are headed by men. Only 17.7% of farming households are headed by women. Male heads of household have an average of 4.35 ha of land, while their female counterparts have 2.19 ha⁴². Nevertheless, Togo has a relatively good record regarding women's formal access to property. The 2018 Land and Domain Code establishes gender equality in access to land as a principle. Between 2018 and 2022, women obtained 6,898 land titles, or 37% of the total of 25,960 titles granted over the period, while titles granted to spouses amounted to 412, or 1.6%.⁴³ 

Moreover, unlike men, women farmers living in urban and peri-urban areas see urbanisation as an opportunity. While most men see urban expansion as a threat and are more inclined to sell their land, women are holding on to their farmland while adapting their practices to meet the demands of urban consumers. To this end, they are moving away from plantation farming to market gardening, which also allows for increased yields. Women therefore benefit from urbanisation because of their ability to adapt to it. ⁴⁴ 

In short, commercial farming, land commodification and easier access to land titles are increasingly giving women the opportunity to break free from customary practices that once limited their access to land.

Urban tenure

Togo's population is heavily concentrated in the south of the country. The Maritime region, one of Togo's five administrative regions and home to the capital Lomé, is home to 44.7% of the population on just one tenth of the national territory. Greater Lomé, comprising the capital and its suburbs, has an estimated population of over 2 million, or 27% of the population.⁴⁵ 

Unlike other African cities, residents of Lomé gained access to land ownership very early on. Up until 1914, the Germans held only around 30 of the 513 land titles granted, with the remainder belonging to the Togolese people⁴⁶. Today, however, access to property remains limited due to the complexity and cost of registration. The market is also characterized by "a high level of land tenure insecurity, including on duly registered land titles"⁴⁷. In 2016, 75% of cases at the Lomé Court of First Instance concerned land. ⁴⁸ 

These conflicts have various causes. Originally, the German and French colonial administrations granted land titles to customary chiefs as representatives of their communities. These very large plots of land, sometimes covering hundreds of hectares, belonged to the community, but have since been the subject of numerous transactions and divisions under opaque conditions that often flout the rights of those entitled to them⁴⁹. As in rural areas, the oral nature of many transfers is also a source of conflict, especially when the witnesses have died and the descendants dispute the legitimacy of the tenancies or land arrangements.

 Nevertheless, informal rules developed over time help to establish a certain order in land transactions. The Togolese recognize the "three-stamp certificate" as an administrative document guaranteeing their occupation. "The document is a plot plan that has been stamped by 3 institutions: (i) the chartered surveyor who drew up the plan, (ii) the town planning department if the land is in an urban area, or the Agricultural Development, Equipment and Mechanization Department (DAEMA, commonly known as Agro foncier) if the land is in a rural area, and (iii) the land registry department.” More than 20,000 such documents are issued each year. However, they do not include geo-referencing of the plots concerned and are not systematically archived.⁵⁰ 

Lomé, photograph by EITI (CC BY-SA 2.0) 

The city of Lomé has an Urban Development Master Plan dating back to 1981. A new version of this document has recently been drawn up and is due to be approved by the relevant authorities. This plan should enable better planning of subdivision operations, in a context where the land market is characterized by an "overproduction" of plots caused by the massive sale of land by customary owners. However, the speculative practice of buying and reselling land quickly to make a profit is not widespread in Lomé, not least because of the importance attached by the Togolese to owning their personal house. 

Nevertheless, the overabundance of housing estates has resulted in a low rate of land occupation and a high level of urban sprawl. In less than three decades, the urbanized area of the Maritime region has quadrupled, rising from 9,580 ha in 1986 to 39,131 ha in 2014. Lomé alone covers 29,301 ha. The public authorities are unable to keep pace with urban growth in terms of the provision of infrastructure and services, especially in the more remote areas, which are sparsely populated (with an average population density of 69 inhabitants/ha, falling as low as 12 inhabitants/ha in some places).⁵¹ 

Urbanization takes place mainly through the conversion of agricultural land into residential areas. Between 1975 and 2013, the surface area covered by towns and villages in Togo increased by 176%⁵². Urbanization and infrastructure construction are leading to a decline in the area devoted to peri-urban market gardening, particularly in Lomé. Between 2002 and 2014, agricultural land in Lomé fell from 530 ha to 160 ha, an average annual reduction of 31 ha. This situation is attributable to the insecurity of land tenure for market gardeners, most of whom do not own the land they farm and are therefore forced to move when the owner or the state wishes to claim it back.⁵³

Land governance innovations

Since 2010, Togo has been committed to the REDD+ process to sustainably manage the remaining forests and increase its forest cover. To achieve this, the Togolese government launched in 2021 the second phase of its ambitious reforestation policy, which aims to increase forest cover to 26%. The aim is to plant a billion new trees by 2030, at a rate of 100 million a year. By 2023, the government expects to have planted 15 million trees on 136,000 ha⁵⁴. A total of 1,915,204 seedlings had been planted as of 1 June 2023, an increase of 35% compared to the previous year⁵⁵, but still short of the target.

Timeline - milestones in land governance

1884: Germany colonizes Togo. 

1902: The German administration introduces the land register and land titles.

 1914: The German Togo is divided between France and Great Britain. 

1922: The French mandatory administration confirmed the option of registering land in the land register.

1926: The recognition of "indigenous" land rights in Togo enabled customary ownership to be recorded in a land register.

 1960: Togo gains its independence. The post-colonial government promulgates the law of 5 August 1960, supplemented by the law of 11 January 1961, with the aim of protecting the land ownership of Togolese citizens.

1974: The government carries out an agri-land reform with the aim of maximising land development. 

2010: Togo joins the REDD+ process to manage its forests sustainably.

2018: Togo adopts a new land code, bringing together the various legal texts on land governance in a single corpus. 

2021: The country launches annual reforestation campaigns aimed at achieving 26% forest cover.

Where to go next?

The author's suggestion for further reading

 I recommend this report produced by the World Bank. In addition to providing an overview of Togolese customary land legislation and practices, the document discusses the particularities of the urban land market in Togo in depth.

To find out more about dibi-madibi and the changing patterns of access to land, I suggest reading the articles by Padabô Kadouza, Marco Gardini and Koffi Amouzou Sossou. 

Finally, this short video gives an idea of the reforestation initiative being put in place by the government in 2021.

References

[1]Comité Permanent Inter-états de Lutte contre la Sécheresse dans le Sahel (CILSS). 2016. Les Paysages de l'Afrique de l'Ouest : Une Fenêtre sur un Monde en Pleine Évolution. Garretson: U.S. Geological Survey EROS. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101581. Rochegude, Alain et Caroline Plançon. 2009. « Fiche pays Togo ». Dans Décentralisation, foncier et acteurs locaux. Comité technique "Foncier et développement". URL : https://landportal.org/library/resources/fiche-pays. 

[2] Bertelsmann Stiftung. 2022. BTI 2022 Country Report - Togo. Gütersloh. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/bti-2022-country-report-%E2%80%94-togo. Direction générale du Trésor. 2023. Situation économique et financière du TOGO. 2 février. URL: https://www.tresor.economie.gouv.fr/Pays/TG/conjoncture#:~:text...e&text=Avec%20un%20PIB%20en%202021,l%27ordre%20de%20850%20EUR. Groupe de la Banque mondiale. 2019. Revue du secteur foncier en milieu urbain et péri-urbain. Mettre le marché foncier au service d’un développement efficient et inclusif du Grand Lomé. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/revue-du-secteur-foncier-en-milieu-urbain-et-p%C3%A9ri-urbain-mettre-le-march%C3%A9-foncier. 

[3] Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques et Démographiques (INSEED). 2023. Résultats définitifs du RGPH-5 de Novembre 2022. URL: https://www.togofirst.com/images/2023/RECENSEMENT_RESULTATS_.pdf. 

[4] Coulibaly, Nadoun. 2022. "Togo - Investissements, agriculture, industrie : les clés du rebond". Jeune Afrique, 7 October. Sourisseau, Jean-Michel, Guillaume Soullier, Christian Corniaux, Ibra Toure, Jean-François Bélières, Jean-Claude Lorente, Véronique Ancey, Astou Dio Camara, Gabriel Sangli and Paul Kanfitine. 2020. Vers une transhumance apaisée à la frontière entre le Togo et le Burkina Faso? Perspectives d’une approche territoriale et anticipatrice. CIRAD. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/vers-une-transhumance-apaise%CC%81e-a%CC%80-la-frontie%CC%80re-entre-le-togo-et-le-burkina-faso.

 [5] The word "domain" (in French "domaine") refers to state land, which covers both public land (domaine public) and state private property (domaine privé de l'Etat). 

[6] Groupe de la Banque mondiale. 2019. Revue du secteur foncier en milieu urbain et péri-urbain. Mettre le marché foncier au service d’un développement efficient et inclusif du Grand Lomé. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/revue-du-secteur-foncier-en-milieu-urbain-et-p%C3%A9ri-urbain-mettre-le-march%C3%A9-foncier. Kadouza, Padabô. 2010. "Le dibi-madibi : un mode de faire-valoir original dans le sud-ouest du Togo". Belgeo (3). URL: https://landportal.org/node/116655. 

[7] Kadouza, Padabô. 2010. "Le dibi-madibi : un mode de faire-valoir original dans le sud-ouest du Togo". Belgeo (3). URL: https://landportal.org/node/116655.

[8] Gardini, Marco. 2012. "Land Transactions and Chieftaincies in Southwestern Togo". Africa Spectrum no. 47 (1): 51-72. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-transactions-and-chieftaincies-southwestern-togo. 

[9] Bertelsmann Stiftung. 2022. BTI 2022 Country Report - Togo. Gütersloh. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/bti-2022-country-report-%E2%80%94-togo. Rochegude, Alain et Caroline Plançon. 2009. « Fiche pays Togo ». Dans Décentralisation, foncier et acteurs locaux. Comité technique "Foncier et développement". URL : https://landportal.org/library/resources/fiche-pays.

[10] Groupe de la Banque mondiale. 2019. Revue du secteur foncier en milieu urbain et péri-urbain. Mettre le marché foncier au service d’un développement efficient et inclusif du Grand Lomé. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/revue-du-secteur-foncier-en-milieu-urbain-et-p%C3%A9ri-urbain-mettre-le-march%C3%A9-foncier. Rochegude, Alain et Caroline Plançon. 2009. « Fiche pays Togo ». Dans Décentralisation, foncier et acteurs locaux. Comité technique "Foncier et développement". URL : https://landportal.org/library/resources/fiche-pays.

 [11] République togolaise. 1974. Ordonnance no 12 portant réforme agro-foncière. URL : https://landportal.org/fr/library/resources/lex-faoc004314/ordonnance-n%C2%BA-12-portant-r%C3%A9forme-agrofonci%C3%A8re..

[12] Kossigan, Tobi. 2021. "Le foncier rural au service du développement : le Togo adopte". Bulletin d’information bimestriel de l’Observatoire Régional du Foncier rural en Afrique de l’Ouest (ORFAO) (01):13-14. URL: https://landportal.org/node/100850. Présidence de la République Togolaise. 2023. « Performances des ZAAP en 2022 : une évaluation satisfaisante ». 14 janvier. URL: https://presidence.gouv.tg/2023/01/14/performances-des-zaap-en-2...%20période%202021%2D2022,toute%20l%27étendue%20du%20territoire.

[13] Groupe de la Banque mondiale. 2019. Revue du secteur foncier en milieu urbain et péri-urbain. Mettre le marché foncier au service d’un développement efficient et inclusif du Grand Lomé. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/revue-du-secteur-foncier-en-milieu-urbain-et-p%C3%A9ri-urbain-mettre-le-march%C3%A9-foncier. 

[14] Dossavi, Ayi Renaud. 2019. "Au Togo, la numérisation des titres fonciers est désormais finalisée". Togo First, March 15. https://www.togofirst.com/fr/gouvernance-economique/1503-2757-au-togo-la-numerisation-des-titres-fonciers-est-desormais-finalisee. 

[15] République togolaise. 1974. Ordonnance no 12 portant réforme agro-foncière. URL : https://landportal.org/fr/library/resources/lex-faoc004314/ordonnance-n%C2%BA-12-portant-r%C3%A9forme-agrofonci%C3%A8re. 

[16] République togolaise. 2018. Loi n°2018‐005 du 14 juin 2018 portant Code foncier et domanial. URL: https://landportal.org/node/116656. 

[17] Comité Permanent Inter-états de Lutte contre la Sécheresse dans le Sahel (CILSS). 2016. Les Paysages de l'Afrique de l'Ouest : Une Fenêtre sur un Monde en Pleine Évolution. Garretson: U.S. Geological Survey EROS. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101581.

[18] Yao, Mawouéna Apla et coll. 2020. Évaluation des ressources forestières mondiales 2020 - Rapport Togo. Rome : FAO. URL : https://landportal.org/node/116634. 

[19] AFP. 2022. « Le Togo replante et réduit sa consommation de bois pour sauver ses forêts ». 8 août. URL : https://youtu.be/jA4czvfc4tc.

[20] Yao, Mawouéna Apla et coll. 2020. Évaluation des ressources forestières mondiales 2020 - Rapport Togo. Rome : FAO. URL : https://landportal.org/node/116634. 

[21] République togolaise. 2023. Première communication relative à l’adaptation aux changements climatiques au Togo. URL : https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/ACR/2023-08/togo-ad-comm-fr.pdf. Sourisseau, Jean-Michel, Guillaume Soullier, Christian Corniaux, Ibra Toure, Jean-François Bélières, Jean-Claude Lorente, Véronique Ancey, Astou Dio Camara, Gabriel Sangli et Paul Kanfitine. 2020. Vers une transhumance apaisée à la frontière entre le Togo et le Burkina Faso? Perspectives d’une approche territoriale et anticipatrice. CIRAD. URL : https://landportal.org/library/resources/vers-une-transhumance-apaise%CC%81e-a%CC%80-la-frontie%CC%80re-entre-le-togo-et-le-burkina-faso.

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