Niger - Context and Land Governance

^{Photo: Francisco Ortega/Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)}

Desertification is a major issue in Niger that increases pressure on land. Between 1975 and 2016, sandy areas increased by 24.8%, reducing forest cover and leading to a loss of soil stability. The degradation of natural resources in the north weakens the pastoral system. In the agropastoral zone in the south, low and erratic rainfall, high temperatures and declining land fertility also hinder the practice of rain-fed agriculture. To continue their activities, farmers in the Sahelian zone are increasingly clearing forests and encroaching on pastoral areas, leading to recurrent conflicts between farmers and herders¹.

^{Livelihood zones in Niger, Map prepared by USAID/Fewsnet}

From 1960 to 1990, the contribution of the agricultural, forestry and fisheries sectors to GDP fell drastically, from 75% to 29%. From 1990 onwards, the value added of agriculture has increased, reaching 38% of GDP in 2020². This percentage is quite high considering the largely desert character of the country. Most of the agricultural production (87.5%) is destined for food crops, such as millet, sorghum, rice, cowpeas and maize. This agriculture is mainly rainfed. Although agriculture continues to employ more than 80% of the population, one third of Nigeriens are undernourished³. The country experienced another drought episode in 2021-2022, resulting in a sharp decline in cereal production and food insecurity for 6.4 million Nigeriens⁴.

Transhumant and sedentary livestock also play a significant role in the country's economy. Indeed, 87% of the active population is engaged in livestock farming, an activity that contributes to meeting 25% of food needs. Niger is thus the leading exporter of livestock in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)⁵.

Mining is also an important economic sector. Niger's main exports are uranium, hydrocarbons and gold. Uranium is the country's main source of mineral wealth, but the sector has become less profitable due to the fall in world prices since 2007.

Although Niger has an impressive body of land legislation, the provisions of the law are on the whole weakly applied and suffer from certain shortcomings. As the old laws are no longer adapted to the current context, Niger started in 2013 to revise its land regulations⁶.

Historical context

As Niger is a former French colony in West Africa, the private property regime was introduced in 1932. This regime aims to formalize ownership through the granting of land titles and establishes the State as the holder of unregistered land.

At independence, Niger maintained the principle of eminent domain for the state and sought to continue the process of registering land in the Land Registry. The state relies on existing customary land rights, recognizing their legitimacy, and develops procedures to register them. Nevertheless, the government tried to limit the traditional power of land chiefs through the adoption of various laws, including Law No. 62-7 of 12 March 1962, which abolished the privileges acquired over chieftaincy land. The 1960s were marked by a strong commitment on the part of the State to modernise agriculture and livestock farming.

However, the droughts of the 1970s and a coup d'état in 1974 hampered this dynamic. As a result of the droughts, the population suffered from famine and livestock herds were decimated. In response, the government refocused its national rural development policies on supporting family farms and rebuilding livestock to ensure food security.

It is in the context of the fight against desertification and the return to democracy that Niger adopted the guiding principles of the Rural Code through Ordinance No. 93-015 of 2 March 1993. The Ordinance aims in particular at securing land tenure for rural actors, the sustainable management of natural resources and the coherent development of the territory⁷. It defines the principles of orientation, implementation and monitoring of the rural code, which has yet to be drafted.

In 2013, a review of Ordinance No. 93-015 highlighted the outdated and contradictory nature of certain legislative texts on land tenure. Following this assessment, it was agreed to convene States General on Rural Land Tenure, which took place in 2018 under the aegis of the President of the Republic of Niger. The main recommendation of this event, which brought together more than 300 stakeholders from all over the country, is to renew Niger's land policy.

In 2018, the government created a "Technical Committee in charge of leading the process of developing Niger's rural land policy and monitoring the implementation of the recommendations of the States General on Rural Land". From 2018 to 2020, this Committee will organize consultation workshops with more than 1000 people. Customary chiefs, women, youth, farmers, herders, fishermen, civil society representatives, local elected officials and parliamentarians are invited to give their opinion on the content of the policy, which was subsequently presented to the government in 2020.

Given the stakes, the adoption of the document is postponed until after the presidential elections in April 2021. Following the election, the outgoing President Issoufou Mahamadou handed over power to Mohamed Bazoum. Despite the change in power, the government adopted the Niger Rural Land Policy on November 9, 2021⁸.

Land legislation and regulations

The main legislative text on rural land tenure in Niger is Ordinance No. 93-015 of 2 March 1993 establishing the guiding principles of the rural code. This ordinance establishes the legal framework governing agricultural, forestry and pastoral activities with a view to developing a rural code. At the time, the Ordinance was seen as quite innovative, as it reaffirmed the legitimacy of customary land rights in a more operational manner than Law n°61-30 of 19 July 1961 and took more explicitly into account the specific needs of livestock farmers⁹. In addition, the Ordinance facilitated rural land registration mechanisms by entrusting management to an institutional structure of land commissions in each arrondissement or commune¹⁰.

According to this Ordinance, land ownership obtained by virtue of custom enjoys the same protection as that resulting from written law, particularly when it has been registered in the

"rural land file". Owners are expected to develop their land without interruption for more than three years. The absence or inadequacy of development does not lead to the loss of the right of ownership by its holder but authorizes the transfer of the use of the land to a third party¹¹.

For its part, Niger's recently adopted Rural Land Policy aims to produce a coherent set of guidelines for sustainable land management, environmental protection, security of individual and state-owned land, conflict prevention and rural development. The approach was inspired by and adapted to the country's context the principles and methods developed by the "Voluntary Guidelines (VG) for Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests" and the "Framework and Guidelines on Land Policies in Africa".

^{Onion harvest in Niger, photo by Remi Nono-Womdim, FAO (CC BY-NC 2.0)}

The new policy maintains the land commissions at the commune level as the body responsible for issuing deeds, while village land commissions certify "the materiality of land rights on the ground". This policy is accompanied by a 2021-2027 Action Plan that includes a strategy for implementing the objectives.

Land tenure system

The land tenure system in Niger is divided into 1) the domain of individuals and 2) the domain of the State and local authorities.

The domain of individuals concerns residents of Niger, for whom land tenure is secured according to three systems: customary law, the registration system and registration in the rural land file.

Under customary law, land chiefs are involved as witnesses to land transactions and verify that the seller of the land is the true owner. These transactions are sometimes formalized in writing.  

The registration of a property in the Land Register (i.e., its registration) confers an individual private property right called land title. The Directorate of Land and Cadastral Affairs in the Ministry of Finance is responsible for maintaining the Land Book. The government has introduced a simplified procedure for accessing the land title, called a "sheda" title¹².

The rural land file is instituted by Ordinance No. 93-015 of 2 March 1993, which also provides for various mechanisms for formalizing land ownership in addition to registration, including the authenticated deed, the certificate of registration in the rural file and the private deed. These deeds are granted by the land commissions.

The State has a public domain and a private domain. The public domain of the State or local authorities includes roads, transhumance tracks and livestock corridors. Land protected for natural resource conservation purposes also belongs to the public domain of the State or a local authority. Protected lands remain nevertheless accessible to other customary pastoral and agricultural uses by local residents. Classified forests are in the public domain of the State. While pastoral grazing is generally maintained in classified forests, agriculture, timber cutting and hunting are prohibited unless a concession with specifications is granted or the land is declassified. Finally, the land undergoing restoration comes under the State's public domain for the duration of the necessary work.

The private domain of the State and local authorities includes reserved land, i.e. strategic reserves for grazing or pastoral development. Land that is vacant or without proof of established ownership also belongs to the private domain of the State¹³.

Land use trends

Niger is undergoing major transformations in land use due to the combined effects of population growth, anthropogenic action and climate change. Pastures and forests are increasingly being converted into agricultural or urban areas.

With the highest birth rate in the world (3.8 per cent per year), population growth in Niger is greatly increasing the pressure on Arab lands, especially in the southern zone where the majority of the population is concentrated and where agricultural and pastoral activities are possible. The population has tripled in 30 years, increasing from 8 million in 1990 to 24.2 million in 2020¹⁴.

The area devoted to rainfed agriculture at national level has doubled in forty years. It covered 12.6% of the territory in 1975 compared to 24.5% in 2013¹⁵. During the same period, grazing lands and rangelands consisting of savannahs and steppes have experienced a loss of 15%¹⁶.

Niger is making significant efforts to restore degraded land and soil. Since 2016, the various activities carried out, such as dune fixation and assisted natural regeneration, have made it possible to recover 518 405 hectares. These reforestation efforts (of the order of 7,500 hectares per year), however, fail to compensate for the decrease in natural forest cover (12,420 hectares per year). It is estimated that Niger's forests have lost 865,300 hectares since 1990, covering 1,079,700 hectares in 2020¹⁷, or less than 1% of the territory. Nevertheless, it seems that the rate of desertification is decreasing. According to 2007 data, the desert was advancing by 200,000 hectares per year, whereas this rate will be 100,000 hectares in 2020¹⁸.

^{Aïr Mountains and Ténéré Desert in Niger, photography by willemstom, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0}

Investments and land acquisitions

Large-scale land acquisitions in Niger fall into three main categories: agricultural projects, ranches and mining concessions.

In Niger, a significant proportion of agricultural investments are made by local agribusinesses seeking to acquire land in fertile lowlands and even dune grasslands. These acquisitions, which began before the 2000s, involve land that is often already being farmed¹⁹ in shared or common use and in the public or private domain of the state.

In addition to local entrepreneurs, foreign companies have attempted to obtain land in Niger. In particular, the proposed acquisition of 120,000 hectares by the Saudi company Al Horaish for Trading & Industry caused a stir in Niger. This public-private partnership targeted pastoral and 

agricultural land in the Diffa region of southeastern Niger, but it is unclear whether it has actually materialized²⁰.

In the pastoral zone, the creation of vast private ranches leads to the privatisation of areas previously used in common. In the department of Abalak alone, for example, three ranches have been set up by 'rich commercial herders' with areas ranging from 1,200 to 4,800 hectares²¹, or even more²², in violation of existing regulations or by taking advantage of their inadequacies.

However, it would appear that the presence of land commissions responsible for verifying land rights has limited the extent of abusive land acquisitions for the creation of agro-industrial farms or private ranches. In addition, in 2014 the government ordered the cancellation of ranch projects under development and the dismantling of ranches already established²³. While these instructions have not been carried out for existing ranches, they appear to have discouraged the momentum for their expansion.

The mining industry also has significant impacts on rural land in Niger. Uranium mining began in the late 1960s in the desert region of Agadez in northern Niger. The first site was the Arlit open-pit mine, established in 1968 by French interests and the government of Niger and still in production. The Compagnie minière d'Akouta (Cominak), the second largest uranium operation in Niger and one of the largest underground mines in the world, started up in 1978. In addition to the disruption of traditional pastoral systems, the perceived inequitable sharing of mining revenues catalyzed Tuareg rebellions in the 1990s and 2000s. Since then, 15% of mining revenues have been conceded to the budget of the communes of the regions concerned²⁴.

Niger has long been France's primary source of supply for its nuclear power plants, but the sector has been in trouble since the collapse of uranium prices in 2007. Although a new deposit, the Azelik mine, came into production in 2007, other projects have been put on hold. Cominak also closed in 2021. Although the mine was underground, radioactive tailings that came to the surface contaminated the environment. It is estimated that the radioactive half-life of uranium is billions of years, resulting in very long-term soil, air and water pollution²⁵. In addition to uranium mines, there are gold mining sites north of Agadez and in the west of the country (Tillabéri region) as well as oil mining in the east (Diffa region).

Community land rights

In Niger, traditional chiefs are responsible for land management. They are the guarantors of customary rights and, as such, play a conciliatory role in resolving land conflicts²⁶. Customary land tenure systems differ according to the area. In the agricultural areas of the south, village lands are divided into community lands and family lands. Community land is used collectively by villagers for grazing, gathering, wood harvesting and hunting. By law, it is formally under the domain of the State, but the State ignores it because it is not registered or located. Family land is under the authority of the head of the household²⁷.

In pastoral areas, the organisation of space is structured around access to water points. The communities that have built the well, use it regularly or live nearby have priority rights to the water and adjacent pastures. Some transhumant groups who do not have a home ground use temporary ponds during the rainy season, and then turn to wells and boreholes in the dry season. Herders passing through a home area must obtain permission to water their herd from the owner of the waterhole. Traditionally, this permission was granted free of charge or in return for symbolic gifts²⁸.

In Niger, the practice of pastoralism is subject to increasing vulnerability. In the Diffa region, for example, there is a reduction in pastoral space due to the expansion of agricultural activities and a trend towards overgrazing, which depletes fodder resources. The result is increased competition for access to land and water points between farmers and herders, but also between sedentary and transhumant herders. To these pressures, which date back to the 1980s, is now added the insecurity caused by the Boko Haram movement. With the rise of this armed group from 2009 onwards, herder families are increasingly subjected to acts of violence, have to abandon certain grazing areas and change their transhumance routes²⁹. The creation of private ranches is also changing transhumance routes and leading to overgrazing in the new host areas. In addition, the imposition of fees for access to water, a practice that contradicts both custom and law, generates significant costs for transhumant pastoralists and marks a privatization of space³⁰.

Finally, in the desert areas in the north of the country, oasis lands where fruits and vegetables are grown are dominant. It is estimated that oases cover 2,300 hectares, but this area is reportedly decreasing³¹. Oases have complex land tenure systems where different rights overlap in the same place, i.e. ownership of the subsoil (i.e. salt resources) is distinct from ownership of agricultural land (for seasonal crops), which is also distinct from ownership of fruit trees (notably palm trees).

The possession of non-formalized customary land rights remains the norm in Niger. Since the creation of the cadastre in 1906, 32,000 land titles have been allocated in Niger, including 8,000 between 2005 and 2015³², or 25% of the total number in 10 years. However, the pace of registration appears to be increasing, as between 2017 and 2019, an additional 2,000 land titles were allocated³³.

Overall, the establishment of land commissions has not led to greater formalisation of land rights either. Indeed, it is estimated that 20 years after their creation, land commissions have granted administrative deeds for 2% of land in rural areas^34.

In total, only 4.5% of the population has "legally authenticated documents for their land for agricultural use", such as land titles, farming permits, minutes or sales agreements. Thus, 72.3% of the population owns land, "but has no title or deed"³⁵, while 23.2% of individuals do not own the land they farm.

Women's land rights

The legal framework of Niger guarantees in principle to women the same land rights as men. Article 4 of Ordinance No. 93-15 of 3 March 1993 provides that "rural natural resources are part of the common heritage of the Nation. All Nigeriens have equal access to them without discrimination on the basis of sex or social origin". According to this ordinance, each Land Commission must include a member representing women³⁶. By introducing an obligation to develop land, the Ordinance also sought to promote access to land for women, young people and descendants of slaves³⁷.

Also, the Constitution of 25 November 2010 specifies in its article 8 that the Republic of Niger "ensures equality before the law for all without distinction of sex, social, racial, ethnic or religious origin"³⁸. The National Rural Land Policy adopted in 2021 reaffirms the principle of gender equality in land tenure. It also introduces the possibility for spouses to apply for a land possession or ownership deed if they have acquired the land jointly³⁹.

^{Village women and their herd in Niger, photo by ILRI/Stevie Mann (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)}

Despite the facilities provided by the law, it is estimated that in 2014, only 0.3% of women held title to their agricultural land, compared to 3.6% of men⁴⁰. Traditional land tenure management thus largely continues to prevail.

According to customary law, men administer the family or lineage's land heritage. This heritage is made up of family fields and individual fields. All family members work on the family fields, whose crops are managed by the head of the family. Women may have access to individual land, provided by the head of the family. Although women benefit from the fruits of the harvest, the fields they cultivate belong to the family domain. As such, they cannot make sustainable investments in the land (sinking wells or planting trees) or sell or rent the land⁴¹.

In terms of land rights, women in Niger are generally disadvantaged "whether in terms of inheritance, access to good quality land, ownership of plots or participation in land governance". To remedy the situation, the government aims to allocate 35% of developed plots to women, youth and people with disabilities⁴².

Urban Land Tenure

Niger has one of the lowest urbanization rates in Africa (16.43%), behind only Burundi⁴³. Nevertheless, urban population growth is quite high, at 4.4% per year in 2020⁴⁴. The capital Niamey has a population of 1.5 million.

Subdivision, i.e. the conversion of rural land into urban plots, is a major source of revenue for the urban administration. For example, the Niamey Urban Community has massively subdivided land to pay its employees and finance its operations. It has also granted subdivided land to its officials. However, it is estimated that at least 100,000 parcels of land are left vacant in Niamey. The overproduction of parcelled but unoccupied land creates peri-urban areas characterized by discontinuous housing and relatively low population densities⁴⁵.

^{Dromedary in Niamey, Niger, photograph by Gustave Deghilage (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)}

In addition, several spaces belonging to the public and private domains of the State have been parcelled out, sold or illegally occupied. The situation prompted the government to adopt Law No. 2017-20 of 12 April 2017, laying down the fundamental principles of urban planning and development. Henceforth, it is theoretically prohibited for private individuals to carry out subdivision operations, which are the sole responsibility of the Ministry of Urban Planning and Town Halls⁴⁶. However, compliance with the ban sometimes leaves something to be desired, because in complicity with the municipalities, subdivisions are carried out under the title of "extensions" of permits already granted by the Ministry.

The percentage of the Nigerien population living in informal settlements or inadequate housing has nevertheless decreased considerably, from 53.1% in 1992 to 10% in 2021. This decline is partly attributable to various government initiatives to promote better access to adequate housing and public infrastructure⁴⁷.

Land innovations

Farmers in the Maradi and Zinder regions of south-central Niger have massively adopted assisted natural regeneration, a simple agroforestry technique that allows them to regreen drylands and better manage soil fertility where fallowing has become impossible.This practice emerged in response to drought (itself due to declining rainfall from the 1960s onwards), population growth and the expansion of agricultural activities. By the mid-1980s, most of the trees in the fields had been cut down, subjecting the soil to severe wind erosion. To combat desertification, farmers began to protect the shrubs and bushes that grew spontaneously in their fields. The spread of assisted natural regeneration has resulted in the restoration of approximately 3 million hectares (30,000 km2 ) of land. The success of this practice is such that the forest cover in the agricultural areas of southern Niger is currently fuller than it was 30 years ago, improving the fertilitý of the soil and increasing the availability of fodder for livestock⁴⁸.

Timeline - milestones in land governance

1970s: Major droughts begin to occur in Niger.

1974: A first coup d'état occurs in Niger.

1991: The return to democracy begins.

1993: Presidential elections are organized in March. Niger adopts the Ordinance n°93-015 of March 2, 1993 fixing the Orientation Principles of the Rural Code.

2010: Niger adopts a pastoral law with Ordinance 2010-029 on pastoralism.

2013: A study is conducted to evaluate the application of Ordinance No. 93-015 of March 2, 1993 and the legal and institutional architecture in terms of land.

2017: The government adopts Law No. 2017-20 of 12 April 2017, laying down the fundamental principles of urban planning and development, repealing Law No. 2013-28 of 12 June 2013, laying down the fundamental principles of urban planning and development

2018: Estates General on Rural Land (EGFR) are organized under the leadership of the Prime Minister. In the wake of the event, the government sets up a committee to develop a new land policy.

2019: Following several meetings with various government bodies and civil society actors, the committee revises the first draft of Niger's Rural Land Policy Document. This document is then validated during a national workshop.

2021: Mohamed Bazoum takes power after the presidential election. The Council of Ministers then adopted the draft decree on the adoption of the Niger Rural Land Policy document and its Action Plan 2021-2027

Where to go next?

The author's suggestions for further reading.

To learn more about the reforestation efforts in Niger under the Great Green Wall, I suggest a short report from Le Monde with AFP. This African Union initiative to restore 100 million hectares of land in the Sahel is beginning to bear fruit in Niger.

If you are interested in women's access to land, I recommend the report by Marthe Diarra and Marie Monimart. The authors describe the contrasting developments in agriculture in the South and the North since the 1990s. In the agricultural areas of the South, land pressure is leading to the eviction of women from their land, thus leading to a "defeminisation of agriculture". Conversely, on the margins of agropastoral and pastoral areas in the north of the country, women who have no or no more livestock are turning to cultivation. This phenomenon of 'feminisation of agriculture' is a response by women from vulnerable households excluded from pastoral activities.

Finally, for an overview of the factors making pastoralism fragile and the drivers of conflict, I suggest a report by the FAO. It discusses the consequences of climate change, population growth, the questioning of natural resource governance mechanisms and the security crisis on pastoral activities.

References

[1] Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS). 2016. West African Landscapes: A Window on a Changing World. Garretson: U.S. Geological Survey EROS. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101581. https://www.presidence.ne/gographie

[2] https://donnees.banquemondiale.org/indicateur/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS?end=2020&locations=NE&start=1960&view=chart

[3] FAO. 2021. The Voluntary Guidelines: Securing our rights - Niger. Rome. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/voluntary-guidelines-securing-our-rights-niger

[4] Faride Boureima. 2022. "Niger, more than six million people will be food insecure". Studio Kalangou, February 16. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101618

[5] Bron-Saïdatou, Florence. 2015. Land governance in Niger: despite achievements, many difficulties. Land Tenure & Development Technical Committee. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/la-gouvernance-foncie%CC%80re-au-niger. 

[6] Idé, Fatouma, and Abdoul Aziz Ibrahim. 2021. "Dr. Seydou Abouba, Coordinator of the Land Policy Development Process in Niger: 'Land governance must guarantee equitable access to resources for all Nigeriens to be able to produce'. Le Sahel, 26 November. URL: https://landportal.org/news/2022/01/dr-seydou-abouba-coordonnateur-du-processus-de-l%E2%80%99%C3%A9laboration-de-la-politique-fonci%C3%A8re. 

Republic of Niger. 2020. Rural Land Policy of Niger. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101591.

[7]Bron-Saïdatou, Florence. 2015. Land governance in Niger: despite achievements, many difficulties. Land Tenure & Development Technical Committee. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/la-gouvernance-foncie%CC%80re-au-niger.

Republic of Niger. 2020. Rural Land Policy of Niger. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101591. 

[8]Bazou, Alhou Abey and Idi Leko. 2021. "Zoom on rural land tenure processes in Niger". Bimonthly newsletter of the Regional Observatory of Rural Land Tenure in West Africa (ORFAO) (1):15-18. URL: https://landportal.org/node/100850.

FAO. 2021. The Voluntary Guidelines: securing our rights - Niger. Rome. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/voluntary-guidelines-securing-our-rights-niger

Ibrahim, Abdul Aziz. 2021. "Launch of the implementation of the rural land policy in Niger: The country acquires a tool adapted to the context and challenges of the moment".  Le Sahel, November 11. URL: https://landportal.org/news/2022/01/lancement-de-la-mise-en-%C5%93uvre-de-la-politique-fonci%C3%A8re-rurale-au-niger.

[9] Bron-Saïdatou, Florence. 2015. Land governance in Niger: despite achievements, many difficulties. Land Tenure & Development Technical Committee. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/la-gouvernance-foncie%CC%80re-au-niger

[10] Republic of Niger. Ordonnance n° 93-015 du 2 mars 1993 fixant les principes d'Orientation du Code Rural. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/lex-faoc004660/ordonnance-n%C2%BA-93-015-fixant-les-principes-dorientation-du-code.

[11]Republic of Niger. Ordonnance n° 93-015 du 2 mars 1993 fixant les principes d'Orientation du Code Rural. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/lex-faoc004660/ordonnance-n%C2%BA-93-015-fixant-les-principes-dorientation-du-code.

[12] Bron-Saïdatou, Florence. 2015. Land governance in Niger: despite achievements, many difficulties. Land Tenure & Development Technical Committee. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/la-gouvernance-foncie%CC%80re-au-niger. 

[13] Republic of Niger. Ordonnance n° 93-015 du 2 mars 1993 fixant les principes d'Orientation du Code Rural. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/lex-faoc004660/ordonnance-n%C2%BA-93-015-fixant-les-principes-dorientation-du-code.

[14] World Bank. 2021. "Country profile: Niger," World Development Indicators. URL: https://databank.worldbank.org/views/reports/reportwidget.aspx?Report_Name=CountryProfile&Id=b450fd57&tbar=y&dd=y&inf=n&zm=n&country=NER.

[15] Kouamé, Georges. 2018. La loi foncière rurale ivoirienne de 1998 à la croisée des chemins : vers un aménagement du cadre légal et des procédures?, Paris: Comité technique « Foncier & développement », AFD and MEAE. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/la-loi-fonci%C3%A8re-rurale-ivoirienne-de-1998-%C3%A0-la-crois%C3%A9e-des-chemins-vers-un.

[16] Idrissa, Soumana, Soumana Djibo, Boureima Amadou, Seyni Harouna, Somda Jacques, Clarisse Honadia-Kambou, Masumbuko Bora, Davies Jonathan, Ogali Claire, and Onyango Vivian. 2021. Conserving grazing and rangeland in Niger. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). URL: https://landportal.org/node/101549.

[17] Bokoye, Souleymane. 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment. Niger Report. Rome: FAO. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/%C3%A9valuation-des-ressources-foresti%C3%A8res-mondiales-2020-rapport-niger.

[18] IRIN. 2007. "Niger: Population surging while farm land is shrinking. The New Humanitarian. 7 June. URL: https://reliefweb.int/report/niger/niger-population-surging-while-farm-land-shrinking

Ministry of Planning. 2020. Second voluntary national report on sustainable development goals in Niger. Republic of Niger. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101460

[19] Hilhorst, Thea, Joost Nelen, and Nata Traoré. 2011. Agrarian change below the radar screen: Rising farmland acquisitions by domestic investors in West Africa. Results from a survey in Benin, Burkina Faso and Niger. April. URL: http://www.landgovernance.org/assets/2014/07/Agrarian-change-under-radar-screen_KIT-SNV_aug-upload_0.pdf.

[20] Tchangari, Moussa. 2016. "Lake Chad Basin: Saudis covet 120,000 hectares of agricultural and pastoral land in Niger". Alternative, July 9. URL: https://landportal.org/fr/blog-post/2021/02/bassin-du-lac-tchad-les-saoudiens-convoitent-120-000-hectares-de-terres-agricoles.

[21] Toure, Oussouby. 2015. At the crossroads. An analysis of the impact of pastoral policies on pastoralists in Abalak, Niger. Teddington: Tearfund. URL: https://landportal.org/node/10153.

[22] Thea Hillorst et al. report a figure of 13,200 hectares. 

[23] Hilhorst, Thea, Joost Nelen, and Nata Traoré. 2011. Agrarian change below the radar screen: Rising farmland acquisitions by domestic investors in West Africa. Results from a survey in Benin, Burkina Faso and Niger. April. URL: http://www.landgovernance.org/assets/2014/07/Agrarian-change-under-radar-screen_KIT-SNV_aug-upload_0.pdf.

Toure, Oussouby. 2015. At the crossroads. An analysis of the impact of pastoral policies on pastoralists in Abalak, Niger. Teddington: Tearfund. URL: https://learn.tearfund.org/-/media/learn/resources/policy/at-the-crossroads---full-report-march-2015---french.pdf

[24] Republic of Niger. Loi n°2006-26 du 9 Août 2006 Portant modification de l'Ordonnnace n°93-16 du 02 mars 1993 portant loi minière complétée par l'ordonnance n°99-48 du 5 novembre 1999. URL: http://www.cridecigogne.org/sites/default/files/Niger_Loi_Miniere_2006.pdf.

[25]Jouve, Arnaud. 2021. "Niger: closure of one of the largest uranium mines." RFI, 31 March. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101620.

[26] FAO. 2021. The Voluntary Guidelines: securing our rights - Niger. Rome. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/voluntary-guidelines-securing-our-rights-niger

[27] Bron-Saïdatou, Florence. 2015. Land governance in Niger: despite achievements, many difficulties. Land Tenure & Development Technical Committee. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/la-gouvernance-foncie%CC%80re-au-niger. 

[28] Toure, Oussouby. 2015. At the crossroads. An analysis of the impact of pastoral policies on pastoralists in Abalak, Niger. Teddington: Tearfund. URL: https://landportal.org/node/10153.

[29] FAO. 2021. Niger - Analysis of conflicts related to transhumance in the Diffa region: A synthesis note. Rome. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/le-niger-%E2%80%93-analyse-des-conflits-lie%CC%81s-a%CC%80-la-transhumance-dans-la-re%CC%81gion-de-diffa.

[30] Bron-Saïdatou, Florence. 2015. Land governance in Niger: despite achievements, many difficulties. Land Tenure & Development Technical Committee. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/la-gouvernance-foncie%CC%80re-au-niger. 

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[31] Ghali, Aboubakar. 2016. Study of the oasis problem in Niger. In Gall: Almadeina Association. URL: http://ressources.ingall-niger.org/documents/projets/almadeina/RADDO/Etude/Etude%20probl%C3%A9matique%20oasis.pdf.

[32] Bron-Saïdatou, Florence, and Seyni Souley Yankori. 2015. "Land titles over 10 ha". National Network of Chambers of Agriculture of Niger. Note d'information, 1 September. URL: https://reca-niger.org/spip.php?article912.

[33] Ministry of Planning. 2020. Second voluntary national report on sustainable development goals in Niger. Republic of Niger. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101460.

[34] Republic of Niger. 2020. Rural Land Policy of Niger. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101591

[35] Ministry of Planning. 2020. Second voluntary national report on sustainable development goals in Niger. Republic of Niger. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101460.

[36] Republic of Niger. Ordonnance n° 93-015 du 2 mars 1993 fixant les principes d'Orientation du Code Rural. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/lex-faoc004660/ordonnance-n%C2%BA-93-015-fixant-les-principes-dorientation-du-code.

[37] Bron-Saïdatou, Florence. 2015. Land governance in Niger: despite achievements, many difficulties. Land Tenure & Development Technical Committee. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/la-gouvernance-foncie%CC%80re-au-niger

[38] Ministry of Planning. 2020. Second voluntary national report on sustainable development goals in Niger. Republic of Niger. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101460.

[39] Republic of Niger. 2020. Rural Land Policy of Niger. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101591.

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[41] Bron-Saïdatou, Florence. 2015. Land governance in Niger: despite achievements, many difficulties. Land Tenure & Development Technical Committee. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/la-gouvernance-foncie%CC%80re-au-niger.

[42] Republic of Niger. 2020. Rural Land Policy of Niger. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101591

[43] https://atlasocio.com/classements/demographie/urbanisation/classement-etats-par-taux-urbanisation-afrique.php

[44] World Bank. 2021. "Country profile: Niger," World Development Indicators. URL: https://databank.worldbank.org/views/reports/reportwidget.aspx?Report_Name=CountryProfile&Id=b450fd57&tbar=y&dd=y&inf=n&zm=n&country=NER.

[45] Meyer, Ursula. 2021. "Interweaving urban land tenure, spatial expansion and political institutions. An urban history of Niamey, Niger." African Cities Journal 02 (02): 1-20. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/interweaving-urban-land-tenure-spatial-expansion-and-political-institutions.

[46] The Sahel. 2018. "Interview with the Minister of Lands, Urban Planning and Housing, Mr. Waziri Maman: from now on, no private person can carry out subdivisions... they will be done at the initiative of the ministry in charge of urban planning and the town halls". 5 November. URL: https://www.lesahel.org/interview-du-ministre-des-domaines-de-lurbanisme-et-du-logement-monsieur-waziri-maman-dorenavant-aucun-prive-ne-peut-realiser-des-lotissements-ils-se-feront-a-l/.

[47] Ministry of Planning. 2020. Second voluntary national report on sustainable development goals in Niger. Republic of Niger. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101460.

[48] Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS). 2016. West African Landscapes: A Window on a Changing World. Garretson: U.S. Geological Survey EROS. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101581.