Republic of Congo- Context and Land Governance

^{Brazzaville, Kinshasa, Congo River (NASA, International Space Station, 06/06/03)-By NASA}

With a population of 5.7 million in 2022, the country has one of the lowest population densities in Africa (14.8 inhabitants/km ²)³ . The population is unevenly distributed across the country, with the majority living in urban areas. The decline in the rural population is attributable to a combination of factors, ranging from colonial policies of village concentration to the destructuring effects that the command economy had on peasant agriculture after independence, to oil revenues since the 1970s, which have made the agricultural sector less attractive⁴ .  In terms of land tenure, the underpopulation of rural areas favours the preservation of forests but poses challenges for agricultural production and food security. Congo is 80% dependent on imports for its food supply⁵ . Until 2014, oil accounted for 65% of GDP. Although the Congolese economy continues to rely heavily on the extractive sector, the contribution of oil to GDP has declined in recent years due to lower world prices⁶ . In 2020, hydrocarbon production contributed 36.51 percent of GDP, logging 1.97 percent and mining 0.28 percent. Although most of the oil fields are located on the high seas, accidental spills cause pollution of the Congolese coast⁷ .Revenues from abundant forestry and oil resources do not benefit the entire population. In the Republic of Congo, the poverty rate has risen since 2016 to over 50%. The exploitation of hydrocarbons is characterized by problems of poor governance and lack of transparency on the part of the Congolese state, so the oil rent does not benefit the entire population. The country is even heavily indebted⁸ . 

The majority of the Congolese population belongs to the large Bantu ethnic family. Indigenous communities, including Baaka, Mbendjélé, Mikaya, Gyeli, Luma, Twa and Babongo, are present throughout the country, representing between 1.2 percent and 10 percent of the total population according to available estimates⁹ . Customary land rights of the Bantu majority and indigenous communities are both precarious. In particular, indigenous people, whose traditional way of life is based on the forest, suffer from great insecurity of tenure even though they are subject to a separate and more protective legal regime for their customary property rights.

Historical context

Historically, the Republic of Congo has gone back and forth between the obligation to register land and the denial of private property, against the backdrop of the progressive depopulation of the countryside and the decline of agriculture's share of the national economy. 

The colonization of the present Republic of Congo by the French began in 1880. Not recognizing pre-existing land rights, the French administration de facto took ownership of all land, which it distributed in the form of concessions to foreign companies for agricultural, forestry and mining exploitation. Only French citizens and so-called "assimilated" Congolese could access land ownership through registration. Full ownership was denied to other Congolese who could only obtain an occupation permit by the decision of the governor. The majority of the population, therefore, continued to manage land according to the principles of customary law without formal recognition¹⁰ . 

The country gained independence in 1960, after which eight successive constitutions prohibited access to private property¹¹ . Under the People's Republic of Congo between 1969 and 1992, several former colonial concessions were also transformed into state farms, but these proved to be a failure. 
From the 1970s onwards, oil exploitation stimulated the economy. Oil revenues swelled the coffers of the government, which offered salaries two to ten times higher than agricultural incomes and thus contributed to the rural exodus. In 1979, Denis Sassou-Nguesso took power in a coup. The structural adjustment policies initiated under his presidency in the 1980s marked the disengagement of the state and weakened peasant agriculture¹² . Law No. 52-83 of April 21, 1983, on the Land and Property Code in the People's Republic of Congo confirms the State as the exclusive owner of the land and abolishes the land titles previously granted. The Congolese can now only benefit from a right of use through an occupation permit. 
 

_{Western lowland gorillas, photograph by Roger Le Guen (CC BY-SA 2.0)}

The single-party political system was abolished in 1989. The Fundamental Act of June 4, 1991, on the organization of public powers during the transition period reinstated the right to property. However, as this Act was not accompanied by implementing legislation, access to private propertý remained virtual in reality¹³ . Agricultural production declines sharply in the context of three civil wars between 1993 and 2002. These wars exposed farmers to looting of their crops by militias and forced people in rural areas into exile.

Under the presidency of Denis Sassou-Nguesso, who returned to power in 1997 and remains in power to this day, the Republic of Congo again reformed land management with the adoption of a series of texts following Law No. 17-2000 of December 30, 2000, on the Land Ownership System. Article 10 of this law stipulates that holders of land must register it within three months of being granted an occupation permit. The land titles thus obtained purge all previous rights not registered in the land register¹⁴ . The Congolese Constitution, reformed on January 20, 2002 and again on November 6, 2015, confirms this orientation and recognizes private property as a constitutional right for all Congolese¹⁵ .

Land legislation and regulations

Despite successive regimes that have denied traditional land rights, the current legislation reverses this. Now, customary rights can be recognized. Thus, according to Article 31 of Law No. 10-2004 of March 26, 2004 establishing the general principles applicable to the land tenure system, "In addition to rights under modern legislation, the land tenure system guarantees the recognition of pre-existing customary land rights that are not contrary to or incompatible with duly issued and registered titles. However, these rights are severely restricted and subject to a double obligation of recognition and registration. This limitation of property rights is accentuated in rural areas, as access to the property is also subject to a requirement of "development" according to Article 53 of Law No. 21-2018 of June 13, 2018, establishing the rules of occupation and acquisition of land and land.

The latter law is the most important piece of legislation governing access to land in the entire country. Land registration and acquisition by transmission are the two main mechanisms for accessing land ownership in the Republic of Congo¹⁶ . For civil society, this law marks a certain step backwards in that it abolishes the ad hoc commissions for the recognition and establishment of customary land rights and replaces them with a national commission. This change makes land registration more complicated. 

Another important piece of legislation in the Republic of Congo is Law No. 33-2020 of July 8, 2020, on the Forestry Code, which introduces various changes for the industry to meet the government's new vision. The law introduces a production-sharing regime whereby the holder of an exploitation permit transfers a portion of the harvested logs to the state. Inspired by the petroleum sector, this formula seeks to supply free zones with raw timber in order to attract processing industries¹⁷ . The new Forestry Code also institutes the notion of free, prior and informed consent, but only for decisions related to the exploitation and conservation of forest resources. With the exception of a few concessions that have since been granted, the consent requirement does not apply to most forestry permits already granted.

 More recently, the State enacted Law No. 26-2022 of May 25, 2022, establishing the rules for the registration of real property. Although this law repeals Law No. 17-2000, the rules remain broadly similar. According to some analysts, rather than strengthening land tenure security as desired, this law introduces even more "confusion about the legal nature of the land title"¹⁸ . 

Land tenure system

As in many African countries, land tenure laws in the Republic of Congo often overlap and contradict each other as they concern both the rights holders (such as the state or individuals) and the spaces covered (forests, rural land, urban land, natural resources, etc.). The land tenure system in the Republic of Congo is mainly made up of 1) the land domain of public persons, 2) the land heritage of private persons¹⁹ . The real estate of public entities includes the real estate belonging to them. It is in turn divided into the public and private property of the State, decentralized communities and public establishments. 

The public domain covers property for public use or assigned to a public service. Public domain dependencies are "unseizable (they cannot be seized by the courts), inalienable (they cannot be transferred to a third party, whether free of charge or for consideration) and imprescriptible (they will always be valid over time)." No property rights can be granted on these lands, only occupancy rights under certain conditions. The private domain includes all state-owned property that is not in the public domain, including production forests and protected forests. These properties can be put to private use through a variety of granting mechanisms, including assignment, transfer, equity investment, temporary occupancy, and lease²⁰ . Land without proof of private ownership is deemed to be vacant and without master and belongs to the private domain of the State.  

The private land holdings of individuals consist of land registered by natural and legal persons. Apart from indigenous peoples, whose customary land rights are legally protected even in the absence of a land title²¹, holders of customary land must have it recognized by the state in order to access ownership. To do so, they must register the land after obtaining a recognition order from the Minister of Land Affairs, based on a report from the national customary land recognition commission²². 

Land Use Trends

The territory of the Republic of Congo is mostly covered by forests, which have been generally well-preserved until now. The area of natural forest has only decreased by 1.68% between 1990 and 2020, from 22,315,000 to 21,946,000 hectares. However, the annual deforestation rate has been increasing slightly since 2017²³ . Within the logging concessions, some of which have been in operation since the 1940s, the forests have been overexploited and certain species of wood are now scarce. These concessions, of which there are 60, cover 14,663,390 hectares. Of these, 51 are actually allocated for a total area of 13,710,814 hectares²⁴ .

Research published in 2017 established the existence, area and depth of the world's largest peatland, straddling swamp forests in the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Congo²⁵ . Given the importance of these discoveries, the government of the Republic of Congo committed to protecting them in the Brazzaville Declaration and the Resolution UNEP/EA.4/RES.16 on the conservation and sustainable management of peatlands of 15 March 2019. Shortly thereafter, however, the Congolese government announced the discovery of a large oil deposit under the peatland and has been seeking investors to exploit it. Although doubts have since been raised about the real potential of these reserves, their extraction would jeopardize the preservation of this fragile ecosystem that stores no less than 30 billion tons of carbon²⁶ .

 ^{Forest in the Republic of Congo, photography by Bobulix (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)}

 Forest environments are also threatened by the expansion of agricultural activities by family farms and agro-industrialists, the production of firewood and charcoal, the development of the mining industry, the erection of road infrastructures and hydroelectric dams, and urbanization²⁷ .

Most Congolese farmers practice slash-and-burn agriculture in savannah or forest, leaving the land fallow for two to ten years. Despite the extensive nature of this type of agriculture, only 2% of the country's Arab and pasture lands (covering an area of 10 million hectares) are reportedly exploited²⁸ .  

Investments and land acquisitions

Large-scale land projects in the Republic of Congo date back to colonial times. At that time, France established a system of concessions through which territory was allocated to companies for the exploitation of rubber, sugar, palm oil, ivory, timber and other natural resources in return for royalties paid to the colonial administration. To give just one example, the Compagnie française du Haut et du Bas-Congo (CFHBC) was granted a huge concession of 7.5 million hectares for the production of palm oil²⁹ . In order to obtain rubber, the concessionary companies forced the inhabitants to collect and pour a certain amount of sap, failing which some of these companies used the abduction of women and children or the murder of men as a means of repression. Despite these violent practices, several concessionaires went bankrupt due to low yields and the lack of markets to sell their production³⁰ .

These concessions were nationalized in the 1970s to be managed by state agencies. However, these plantations were soon abandoned and privatized again in the 1990s. The private sector was not interested in taking over these state farms at the time and agricultural production declined sharply³¹ . 

The granting of large areas to foreign investors is now on the rise in the Republic of Congo. For example, the subsidiary of the Singaporean conglomerate Olam, Congolaise Industrielle des Bois (CIB), is exploiting no less than 2.1 million hectares of forest³² , while the European Forest Industry of Ouesso has a concession of 1.21 million hectares³³ . Local communities and indigenous populations often live within the logging perimeters. In many cases, the presence of these concession companies generates discontent among local villagers, who force the interruption of logging activities³⁴ . 

Alongside logging operations, agriculture is consuming more and more space in the Republic of Congo. Since the 2000s, the Congolese government has seen agribusiness as a vehicle for economic development and increased food production. To compensate for its low agricultural budget, the government has called on foreign investors and granted hundreds of thousands of hectares for cattle breeding projects, cereal crops, as well as cocoa and oil palm plantations³⁵ . One project that made a big splash in the media in 2009 was the allocation of 200,000 hectares to South African farmers, with the possibility of increasing the area under cultivation to 10 million hectares³⁶ .

A study of five agricultural investments reported that most of these projects did not generate significant opposition from local people because they were established on former state farms. One case of opposition from communities supported by a rainforest protection organization was noted, however, against a Malaysian company that was established on savanna and forest land. Within a few years of their establishment, most of these companies had a mixed record in terms of agricultural productivity and job creation, with some even closing within three years³⁷ . 

Despite these inconclusive results, the Congolese government continues to encourage foreign investors in the agricultural sector. The government recently granted 12,000 hectares of Arab land to Rwanda through the Crystal Venture holding company controlled by Rwandan President Paul Kagame. The 25-year agreement is for the cultivation of castor beans³⁸ . 

Community land rights

In the Republic of Congo, there are two legal regimes relating to community land rights. 

The first concerns the majority of Congolese, who must register their land to have their land rights recognized³⁹ . The process of obtaining a land title is complicated and expensive. For example, the national customary land recognition commission meets only once a year, which greatly limits the ability of rights holders to formalize their land⁴⁰ . The rate of land registration remains low, with only 45,000 titles registered in the land register. It is difficult to get an accurate picture of the current extent of private ownership. Registration is mainly for land located near urban areas where land pressure is high and land has a market value. It is estimated that less than 30,000 hectares have been registered in rural areas⁴¹ . 

^{Wildlife in the Republic of Congo, photography by Roger Le Guen (CC BY-SA 2.0)}

The second regime concerns the land rights of indigenous communities through law 5-2011 on the promotion and protection of the rights of indigenous peoples. This law, the first of its kind adopted in Africa⁴² , recognizes the collective and individual rights of indigenous peoples to ownership of and access to land and natural resources traditionally used by them. The customary rights of these populations are guaranteed without the need to obtain a land title through registration. The law provides that the state is responsible for demarcating the lands of indigenous peoples to facilitate recognition of their land rights. Indigenous peoples must also be consulted prior to the development and implementation of any project affecting their lands and natural resources, including the creation of protected areas. When these projects materialize, indigenous peoples are entitled to the benefits of commercial exploitation of their land and natural resources⁴³ . 

This law was seen as groundbreaking at the time of its adoption, as it secured access to land for indigenous people in principle⁴⁴ . In practice, however, indigenous people continue to be routinely evicted from the forests in favour of commercial timber concessions, protected areas and Bantu farmers expanding their fields⁴⁵ . Indigenous people are also often intimidated by forest guards and imprisoned for alleged poaching. More broadly, they are victims of profound discrimination, of which the denial of their land rights is only one manifestation⁴⁶ . 

Women's land rights

Although the Republic of Congo adheres to most international treaties and conventions on gender equality, national laws take little account of the specific needs and interests of women in forest management. Their inclusion in decision-making bodies is also limited⁴⁷ . Congolese law nevertheless establishes gender equality in access to land. Article 19 of Law No. 21-2018 of June 13, 2018 thus invalidates customs and traditions that suppress or restrict women's right to occupy or acquire land in rural, peri-urban and urban areas. However, the law does not provide for sanctions for non-compliance with this provision and does not propose legal measures to actively promote women's access to land⁴⁸ . In addition, since the majority of women living in rural areas are illiterate and not familiar with their formal rights, the registration procedure is inaccessible to them. 

In Congo, women contribute to feeding and caring for their families through agroforestry and the collection of fuelwood and non-timber forest products. Although 70% of the agricultural population is female, women own only 28.8% of farms. Under the customary system that continues to predominate in rural areas, women mainly access land through their husbands' families as "usufructuaries or simple users"⁴⁹ .  
 

^{Cassava harvest near Lefoutou Makaga in the Republic of Congo, photography by jbdodane (CC BY-NC 2.0)}

The plight of indigenous women in the Republic of Congo is of particular concern. The many problems of discrimination they face include "lack of access to sexual and reproductive health care, sexual violence, early marriage, high maternal and infant mortality rates, and food insecurity."⁵⁰ . Indigenous women have difficulty accessing land because traditional Bantu leaders are responsible for the customary management of land and forest resources. However, within indigenous communities, gender inequalities and the weight of custom are less pronounced than among Bantu⁵¹ . 

Land tenure in urban areas

The cities of the Republic of Congo are characterized by strong land pressure. More than half of the Congolese population lives in the country's two main cities, Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire⁵² . In 2020, the urban population will account for 68% of the population⁵³ , making the Republic of Congo one of the most urbanized countries in Africa. The capital Brazzaville alone accounts for 37% of the population.

Land in urban areas is governed in the Republic of Congo by Law No. 24-2008 of September 22, 2008 on urban land tenure and Law No. 21-2018 of June 13, 2018 setting out the rules for the occupation and acquisition of land. The latter law prohibits, among other things, the subdivision of unregistered land (i.e., its division into lots for sale).

^{National Road 1 in the Republic of Congo, photography by jbdodane (CC BY-NC 2.0)}

However, enforcement of these laws remains weak due to the slow pace and high cost of obtaining land titles. Cities are marked by uncontrolled expansion and spontaneous occupation of their territory⁵⁴ . For example, Pointe-Noire has grown rapidly since the 1990s due to the growth of the oil industry. Residents of Pointe-Noire's peri-urban areas have gradually converted agricultural land into housing without the state intervening to reserve sufficient space for public infrastructure such as schools and roads. In the wealthier neighbourhoods, residents rely on the private sector for water supply, health care and education. Low-income residents, on the other hand, are pushed to the farthest outskirts of the suburbs. The commodification of rural land and the creation of enclaves for the emerging middle-classes thus generate new forms of territorial exclusion and fragmentation. These differentiated processes of "unplanned" urban development are the result of informal transactions and speculative practices⁵⁵ . Urban sprawl reduces agricultural spaces and forces farmers to move their fields further and further to the periphery⁵⁶ .

Land innovations

 For civil society, Law No. 33-2020 of July 8, 2020 on the Forestry Code marks a major step forward in several respects. In particular, it explicitly establishes the obligation to obtain the free, informed and prior consent of local communities and indigenous populations, even if they do not have a land title, in the framework of the elaboration and implementation of decisions regarding the exploitation of forest resources⁵⁷ . It also formalizes local development funds and establishes the negotiation of specific terms of reference between communities and future concessionaires for the sharing of benefits. The law also introduces the adoption of forest management plans by "two multiparty committees made up of representatives of civil society organizations, local communities and indigenous populations"⁵⁸ . 

 In order to ensure that Bantu and indigenous populations benefit from logging activities, concessions that have a forest management plan are now required to contribute a portion of their profits to a local development fund to finance micro-projects. The new Forestry Code also requires future concessionaires to negotiate specific terms of reference with the communities whose lands lie within the perimeter of the forest unit. These cahiers de charges are another mechanism for communities to receive a share of the benefits from logging. For the time being, however, the positive effects of forest concessions and conservation projects remain limited for local communities, particularly indigenous peoples⁵⁹ .

 The law also recognizes customary use rights and allows local communities and indigenous peoples to harvest forest products from forests that do not belong to them. This right applies not only to the satisfaction of their personal needs but also to productive activities for sale. This provision marks a step forward, whereas most Central African countries simply recognize use rights for domestic needs and prohibit commercialization⁶⁰ .

 The law also creates community forests. This new feature is welcomed but will be more difficult to implement. Communities can manage a community forest only after it has been formally allocated. However, this allocation process has yet to be determined by a regulatory text. In addition, the populations have management rights over forests with a management plan, but do not have property rights over these community forests (because they belong to the state domain)⁶¹ . A major issue that may arise in practice is also the lack of space available for the creation of community forests. On the whole, however, the law makes some significant improvements. 

Timeline - milestones in land governance

1899: Colonial France established a system of private concessions in the Congo to exploit natural resources at low cost.

1960: With the country's independence, private property was abolished. 

1970: The exploitation of oil from the 1970s onwards encourages the rural exodus.

1991: The Basic Act of June 4, 1991 guarantees private property.

1993-2002: Three civil wars contribute to the further depopulation of the countryside and lead to a drop in agricultural production.

2011: The government introduced Law No. 5-2011 of February 25, 2011, on the promotion and protection of the rights of indigenous peoples to improve the lot of these communities. 

2018 : The state passes Act No. 21-2018 on June 13, 2018.

2020 : Law No. 33-2020 of July 8, 2020 on the forestry code was promulgated. This law brings several changes considered positive by the Congolese civil society. 

Where to go next?

The author's suggestions for further reading

If you are a lover of literature, I recommend a novel by Arian Samba to learn more about the realities of real estate in the Republic of Congo. Entitled Plot for Sale, the novel depicts the adventures of a couple who bought a plot of land in Brazzaville.If you are curious about forest governance in the context of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+), you may wish to refer to this comprehensive report written by Climate Analytics with technical support from Fern. Finally, the ClientEarth page dedicated to the Republic of Congo contains several interesting resources to explore. 

References

[1] Dargie, Greta C, Simon L Lewis, Ian T Lawson, Edward T A Mitchard, Susan E Page, Yannick E Bocko, and Suspense A Ifo. 2017. "Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex". Nature no. 542 (7639):86-90. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/age-extent-and-carbon-storage-central-congo-basin-peatland-complex.

[2] Ecko, Brice Armand Dzatini, and Guy Frederic Mouanga. 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 - Congo Report. Rome: FAO. URL: https://www.fao.org/3/cb0124fr/cb0124fr.pdf.

[3] World Bank. 2022. Republic of Congo - Overview. 10 May. URL: https://www.banquemondiale.org/fr/country/congo/overview.

[4] Favrot, Melanie, and Elisabeth Dorier. 2016. "What are the issues related to the arrival of foreign agribusiness investors in the Republic of Congo? Contexte agricole et foncier ". Natures Sciences Sociétés no. 24:334-346. URL: https://landportal.org/node/102629.

[5] Ohemeng Boaman, Anthony, Jean Christophe Okandza, Eloi Kouadio Iv, Ginette Mondongou Camara, Jean Felix Lumière Issang, Alain Beltran Mpoue, Hyacinthe Defoundoux Fila, Bethuel Makosso, and Séverin Aimé Blanchard Ouadika. 2016. National Human Development Report 2015: enterprise competitiveness, youth employment and sustainable human development in the Republic of Congo. UNDP. URL: https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/cg/UNDP-CG-RNDH-Congo2015-2016.pdf.

[6] CAFI. 2018. Republic of Congo National REDD+ Strategy Investment Plan 2018-2025 (version 7b). 28 August. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/plan-d%E2%80%99investissement-de-la-strat%C3%A9gie-nationale-redd-de-la-r%C3%A9publique-du-congo.

[7] Pabou Mbaki, Esther. 2003. "Le Congo désarmé face à la pollution pétrolière", VertigO - la revue électronique en sciences de l'environnement. URL: https://journals.openedition.org/vertigo/4856?lang=en.

[8] Desorgues, Pierre. 2021. "Republic of Congo: a country on life support, between oil dependence and opacity of accounts". TV5 Monde. 12 March. URL: https://information.tv5monde.com/afrique/republique-du-congo-un-pays-sous-perfusion-entre-dependance-au-petrole-et-opacite-des.

[9] The 1.2% is from 2007 census data, cited in CAFI. 2018. Republic of Congo National REDD+ Strategy Investment Plan 2018-2025 (version 7b). 28 August. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/plan-d%E2%80%99investissement-de-la-strat%C3%A9gie-nationale-redd-de-la-r%C3%A9publique-du-congo.
The 10% estimate is provided by UNESCO in a document dating from 2001 or 2004 and is frequently repeated thereafter. See Bigombe Lobo, Patrice. 2008. Dynamiques plurielles de mobilisation pour la reconnaissance et la protection des droits des Pygmées au Congo. https://gitpa.org/Autochtone%20GITPA%20300/gitpa300-16-58congobrazzaMONDE2008.pdf.

[10] Favrot, Melanie, and Elisabeth Dorier. 2016. "What are the issues related to the arrival of foreign agribusiness investors in the Republic of Congo? Contexte agricole et foncier ". Natures Sciences Sociétés no. 24:334-346. URL: https://landportal.org/node/102629.
Venisnik, Tanja, and Benjamin Ichou. 2020. Land tenure rights of local communities and indigenous peoples. International law instruments and national legislation applicable in the Republic of Congo. Client Earth. URL: https://data.landportal.info/fr/library/resources/droits-de-propri%C3%A9t%C3%A9-fonci%C3%A8re-des-communaut%C3%A9s-locales-et-populations-autochtones-en.

[11] Venisnik, Tanja, and Benjamin Ichou. 2020. Land tenure rights of local communities and indigenous peoples. International law instruments and national legislation applicable in the Republic of Congo. Client Earth. URL: https://data.landportal.info/fr/library/resources/droits-de-propri%C3%A9t%C3%A9-fonci%C3%A8re-des-communaut%C3%A9s-locales-et-populations-autochtones-en.

[12] Favrot, Melanie, and Elisabeth Dorier. 2016. "What are the issues related to the arrival of foreign agribusiness investors in the Republic of Congo? Contexte agricole et foncier ". Natures Sciences Sociétés no. 24:334-346. URL: https://landportal.org/node/102629.

[13] Venisnik, Tanja, and Benjamin Ichou. 2020. Land tenure rights of local communities and indigenous peoples. International law instruments and national legislation applicable in the Republic of Congo. Client Earth. URL: https://data.landportal.info/fr/library/resources/droits-de-propri%C3%A9t%C3%A9-fonci%C3%A8re-des-communaut%C3%A9s-locales-et-populations-autochtones-en.

[14] Favrot, Melanie, and Elisabeth Dorier. 2016. "What are the issues related to the arrival of foreign agribusiness investors in the Republic of Congo? Contexte agricole et foncier ". Natures Sciences Sociétés no. 24:334-346. URL: https://landportal.org/node/102629.Republic of Congo. 2000. Law No. 17-2000 on land tenure. URL: https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/con74601.pdf.

[15] Venisnik, Tanja, and Benjamin Ichou. 2020. Land tenure rights of local communities and indigenous peoples. International law instruments and national legislation applicable in the Republic of Congo. Client Earth. URL: https://data.landportal.info/fr/library/resources/droits-de-propri%C3%A9t%C3%A9-fonci%C3%A8re-des-communaut%C3%A9s-locales-et-populations-autochtones-en.

[16] Venisnik, Tanja, and Benjamin Ichou. 2020. Land tenure rights of local communities and indigenous peoples. International law instruments and national legislation applicable in the Republic of Congo. Client Earth. URL: https://data.landportal.info/fr/library/resources/droits-de-propri%C3%A9t%C3%A9-fonci%C3%A8re-des-communaut%C3%A9s-locales-et-populations-autochtones-en.

[17] Karsenty, Alain. 2020. "Geopolitics of Central African Forests." Herodotus 179 (4): 108-29. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101673. 
Republic of Congo. 2020. "Law No. 33-2020 of July 8, 2020, on the Forestry Code. Journal officiel. Special Edition No. 4. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/loi-n%C2%B0-33-2020-du-8-juillet-2020-portant-code-forestier.

[18] Elie Jean-Pierre Nongou, quoted in Douniama, Parfait Wilfried. 2022. "Land management: adopt an inclusive procedure in the development of laws". Adiac, December 13. URL: https://landportal.org/news/2023/03/gestion-fonci%C3%A8re-adopter-une-proc%C3%A9dure-inclusive-dans-l%E2%80%99%C3%A9laboration-des-lois.

[19] Republic of the Congo. 2018. Law No.o 21-2018 of June 13, 2018, establishing the rules of occupation and acquisition of land and lands. URL : https://landportal.org/library/resources/loi-n%C2%B0-21-2018-du-21-2018-du-13-juin-2018-fixant-les-r%C3%A8gles-doccupation-et.

[20] Republic of Congo. 2005. Décret no 2005-552 fixant les modalités d'attribution des biens immobiliers du domaine privé de l'État.URL:https://www.finances.gouv.cg/sites/default/files/documents/D%20n%C2%AF2005-552%20du%207%20novembre%202005.pdf.
Rochegude, Alain, and Caroline Plançon. 2009. "Fiche pays Congo. Decentralization, land tenure and local actors. Technical Committee on Land Tenure and Development. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/fiche-pays-congo.

[21] Republic of Congo. 2011. Law No. 5-2011 of February 25, 2011 on the promotion and protection of the rights of indigenous peoples. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/lex-faoc105791/loi-n%C2%B0-5-2011-du-25-f%C3%A9vrier-2011-portant-promotion-et-protection.

[22] Republic of the Congo. 2018. Law No.o 21-2018 of June 13, 2018, establishing the rules of occupation and acquisition of land and lands. URL : https://landportal.org/library/resources/loi-n%C2%B0-21-2018-du-21-2018-du-13-juin-2018-fixant-les-r%C3%A8gles-doccupation-et.
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[23] Ecko, Brice Armand Dzatini, and Guy Frederic Mouanga. 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 - Congo Report. Rome: FAO. URL: https://www.fao.org/3/cb0124fr/cb0124fr.pdf.

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