Indonesia - Context and Land Governance

Indonesia declared independence from Dutch colonial rule in 1945, and from 1968 to 1998 was under control of the New Order regime, led by General Suharto. A Reformation period followed his resignation, strengthening democratic process in government. The country is part of the MINT (together with Mexico, Nigeria, and Turkey) and Next Eleven groups, with potential to become one of the world’s largest economies during the 21th century.

With 300 distinct ethnic and linguistic groups, there is a major challenge to account for wide-ranging customary practices within statutory law. Land legislation is principally framed through the 1960 Basic Agrarian (for non-state forest and non-state land) and 1999 Forestry (for state forestland) Laws. It is a pluralistic and often contested system⁵. Customary land tenure is recognised in statutory law, but the right is often superseded in the national interest. Nowhere is this more clear to see than in the extensive conversion of forest for oil-palm plantations .

Land Legislation and Regulations

Indonesia has a complex pluralistic land system, with hundreds of regulations relating to land. In article 33 of the 1945 Constitution, “land, water and the natural resources in it are under the powers of the State and used for the people’s prosperity”. The foundation of land legislation is the Basic Agrarian Law (BAL) no. 5 (1960)⁶. This defines the basic types of rights for private individuals, with a ceiling for landholdings, and the role of the state. BAL recognises customary land law (adat) as representing agrarian land law, although without clarifying any principles of indigeneity, and with the stipulation that it cannot conflict with the interests of the nation or the state⁷. This last point has proved contentious, and the new Land Acquisition Law (2012) has been criticised for making it easier for the government to expropriate land⁸.

The Ministry of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial Planning (ATR) has merged with the National Land Agency (BPN), and together they administer all non-state land, namely privately-owned residential areas and agricultural land, and non-forest state land. This makes up around 30% of all land in Indonesia. Titles can be issued through the BPN, although adat land must be converted into formal state rights (see further details in the next section)⁹. In an attempt to speed up the process and improve administrative capacity, the Land Administration Project (LAP), under support from the World Bank and the formerly-called AusAID, instigated a systematic titling program. An initial 5-year phase took place from 1994-1999 in Java, with further phases in the outer islands between 2000 and 2019¹⁰. The World Bank discontinued support after 2009 due to slow progress, and still only one third of total estimated plots in rural and urban areas have been formally registered.

State forestland (kawasan hutan) is governed under the Forestry Law no. 41 (1999, replacing Basic Forestry Law no. 5, 1967). Through this law, nearly 70% of all land is designated as state forest land (an implementation of rights that remains a major of conflict today for forest-based communities) and is administered by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MoEF). It is sub-divided into conservation, protection and production forest areas, while the titled forest is administered as non-state land by ATR and BPN¹¹. With the MPR decree 35, 2013, Adat land is recognised as forest areas commanding non-state rights, although formalised recognition requires a long and often expensive process including the legal recognition of the adat community by regional government. Meanwhile concessions are granted for timber, mining and agribusiness plantations¹².

Following the resignation of Suharto in 1998, the Reformation period of Indonesia witnessed a decentralisation of power to regional governments. Led by Law no. 22 of Regional Administrations (1999 – updated by Law no. 32 in 2004), land administration is implemented by BPN offices at the regional level. This facilitates engaging with local land systems in a highly diverse country, but there are budgetary restraints at this tier.

Land tenure classifications

The Basic Agrarian Law sets out five basic forms of tenure right¹³ :

• Hak Milik (full private ownership allowing transfer or mortgage)
• Hak Pakai (usage rights)
• Hak Guna Usaha (right to exploit, which is geared to commercial agriculture)
• Hak Guna Bangunan (right to construction)
• Hak Sewa (right of lease, where a person or company can construct a building on the land)

Two tenure rights under adat law are also recognised¹⁴ :

• Hak Membuka Tanah (right to clear land)
• Hak Memungut Hasil Hutan (right to collect forest products)

Registration of titles is a costly and lengthy process, and so citizens are dependent upon government-sponsored programs to formalise their tenure. Rural landlessness also remains an acute problem, particularly in populous Java and in remote islands¹⁵.  For forest communities there is little security with all forestland belonging to the State, countered only by some land reform programs and a few options to enter into social forestry leaseholds with management rights. 

Customary tenure regimes are highly diverse across Indonesia, and include individualised and communal parcels, different means of transfer, and variation in local inheritance practices¹⁶.  In rural areas, the administration of land and dispute resolution in rural areas is likely to take place under these systems¹⁷.  Although BAL recognises customary adat land, this land can only be formally registered by converting it to Hak milik, Hak pakai, Hak guna usaha, or Hak guna bangunan. There is no option to gain recognition for land managed under communal arrangements.

Attempts at agrarian reform have been energised during the Reformation period in Indonesia¹⁸.  A national program was led by MPR Decree No. IX of 2001 on Agrarian Reform and Natural Resources Management, which called for a harmonisation of laws relating to land and natural resources, aiming towards equity, human rights and sustainable development¹⁹.  In 2016, under President Jokowi, the TORA reform program was instigated. As well as seeking an acceleration in titling, the program aims to redistribute 4.1 million hectares of state forestland and 0.4 million hectares of idle land to farmers under usage rights²⁰.  It is closely aligned to notions of social forestry, accepting that the designation of land as forest has been a significant cause of conflict.

Land use trends

56% of Indonesia’s population reside in urban areas, led by Jakarta, the largest and fastest growing city in Southeast Asia with over 10 million inhabitants²¹.  There is a major inconsistency in the distribution of the population, with high land scarcity in Java, Bali and parts of Sumatra, and an abundance of available land in other areas²².  In the past, major migration programs were initiated to move landless or land-poor farmers to less densely populated areas (Kalimantan, Sulawesi, West Papua)²³.  In 2017, 33.2% of all land was classed as agricultural. Larger islands (Java, Bali, Sumatra) have favoured rice cultivation over the millennia. Less populated islands remain densely forested, with forest and coastal communities practicing swidden agriculture, hunting and gathering, and fishing.

Indonesia has the third largest area of tropical rainforest in the world, after Brazil and DR Congo²⁴.  Even so, although state forestland accounts nearly 70% of the total land area, calculating actual forest cover is a project of diminishing returns. FAOSTAT places forest cover at 44.5% of total land area in 2017, and yet this includes planted forest such as oil palm plantations. These are predicted to cover nearly 7% of total land in 2020²⁵.  The rate of deforestation has caused huge concern, where clearances have taken place in particular for mining, logging, and oil palm production. In 2003, 2.4 million hectares were being cleared per year, the highest rate in the world. Although this has subsequently improved, Indonesia remains one of the highest emitters of greenhouse gases, from deforestation and also the burning of peatlands. This diminishes rich biodiversity, and impacts upon communities dependent on forests for their livelihoods. At present, nearly 15% of all land is under protected conservation status²⁶. 

Land investments and acquisitions

During the land rush of the last decade, millions of hectares in Indonesia have been acquired for oil-palm plantations (especially to Malaysia and Singapore), but also for mining concessions (China), timber, paper and pulp production²⁷.  The “Master Plan Acceleration and Expansion of Indonesia Economic Development 2011-2025”, promotes such investments in the public interest by which the government can expropriate private land and allocate public land. While foreign enterprises cannot hold land rights, they can enter into a joint venture with an Indonesian partner to lease land²⁸. 

Sumatra and Kalimantan are the main areas where state forestland is converted into oil palm, with West Papua as a new frontier²⁹.  Large corporations dominate the landscape, at the cost of diminishing smallholder-owned plantations, increases in rural landlessness, and food insecurity for millions of families. This is despite a ‘forest moratorium’ since 2011, which has been renewed up to 2021, and recently made permanent. Guided by the 1967 Law on Mining, 1.2 million hectares were allocated from 2004-9 involving multinationals such as Rio Tinto and Freeport McMoRan. A further 2.2 million hectares were planned for allocation in the period 2010-20³⁰. 

In 2017, according to the Consortium for Agrarian Renewal, there were 659 land conflicts noted in Indonesia covering 520,491 ha of land. These mostly involved plantations and government infrastructure projects, and represent a rise of 50% from 2016³¹.  Many land disputes are between farmers and the Ministry of Forestry or plantation companies. The 2012 Land Procurement for Development in the Public Interest Law (“Land Acquisition Act”) calls for a limited period of negotiation with landholders³².  Compensations are by reputation low and arbitrary, and not required if land rights cannot be produced³³.  A pluralistic and often partial judiciary does not help here, with overlapping jurisdictions between the Civil Court, Administrative Court, and Islamic Religious Court³⁴.  

Formal titles or leases are more likely to take precedence over recognition of adat land. Regional governments mediate in disputes over customary land rights. They also issue permits and compensation, and conduct land use planning and redistribution³⁵.  There is a strong CSO network catering to land and natural resources issues, who may assist with legal aid to claimants.

In urban areas, rapid expansion has not been accompanied by sufficient investment into housing and welfare services. A basic sale of land requires no government approval. However, a private development project requires the land first to be sold to the state, who then issue usage rights to the developer³⁶.  For agricultural lands, BAL (article 10) states that land must be farmed by the owner. Nevertheless, this regulation is overlooked in favour of informal rentals, and agricultural land tax is collected from the user rather than the owner.

Women’s Land Rights

In statutory law, men and women have the same legal standing under the Civil Code (1847)³⁷.  Indonesia has also signed and ratified international gender-related conventions, including CEDAW and CEDAW-OP. Yet as of 1998, 30% of land titles were in the name of women, 65% for men, and less than 5% jointly titled³⁸.  Men customarily take the role of head of the household, hence ownership rights fall under their jurisdiction. However, practices differ around the country. For example, in Java women can own land, but in other areas, custom prohibits such ownership³⁹.  

The 1974 Marriage Law states that property acquired after marriage is co-owned by husband and wife, although women’s rights to marital property may not be registered. Regional regulations may differ under specified cultural or religious belief systems, such as where polygamy is still practiced⁴⁰.  Inheritance is governed by the Civil Code, calling for equal rights, or Islamic law. In the latter case, one third of property can be bequeathed, and the rest is placed under Islamic succession rules, split between surviving spouses and children, and favouring males. Javanese custom promotes equal shares of inheritance to children.

The Ministry for Women, now named as the Ministry of Women Empowerment and Child Protection (MoWECP) was first set up in 1978 to promote and enhance the position of women in Indonesia. Depending on the local custom, women may be able to take adat leadership roles (for example, they can be quite active in Sulawesi Province), which can deal with localised land disputes. There are also semi-governmental organisations like Indonesian Women’s Congress (with 75 organisational members), Provincial Women’s Council, and District Women’s Council.

Voluntary Guidelines on Responsible Tenure (VGGT)

FAO has teamed up with local CSOs to enhance knowledge and understanding of the VGGT, and start to implement aspects of the Learning Guide. In particular, they have looked to protect small-scale fisheries around Indonesia, adapting the VGGT into Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication⁴¹.  There have been further attempts to improve the input of CSO networks in national policy processes. On 15th July 2019, a legislature and land agency delegation from Indonesia visited FAO headquarters to exchange on legislative and institutional developments relating to land tenure, and how these can fit with standards of practice as laid out in the VGGT⁴².

Timeline - milestones in land governance

 1945 – Independence
Indonesia declared independence from Dutch colonial rule, bringing in a constitution in the same year.

1960 – Promulgation of Basic Agrarian Law
This is the principal land legislation for non-state forest and non-state land, defining the basic types of rights for private individuals

1994 – Start of Land Administration Project (LAP)
Under support from the World Bank and AusAID, a systematic titling program started in Java, with further phases in the outer islands.

1999 – Forestry Law
This is the principal land legislation for state forestland, including nearly 70% of all land in Indonesia.

2003 – Highest global rate of deforestation
2.4 million hectares were being cleared per year, and although this figure has since improved, Indonesia remains one of the highest global emitters of greenhouse gases.

2016 – TORA reform program instigated 
Under President Jokowi, the program seeks to accelerate titling, redistributing state forestland and idle land to farmers under usage rights.

2017 – 669 reported land disputes
Covering 520,491 ha of land, these figures represent a rise of 50% from 2016. Many disputes are between farmers and the Ministry of Forestry or plantation companies.

Where to go next?

The author's suggestion for further reading

Indonesia is known for a pluralistic legal system regarding land. Daryono shows how this pluralism has persisted, despite attempts by national government to achieve a unified system of rights⁴³.  Meanwhile, Sahide and Giessen look at a fragmented land administration in relation to the governance of tropical rainforests, highlighting how such forests fall into six categories of land use⁴⁴.  There is a body of work looking at attempts for land-related reform. Resosudarmoa et al. examine how the Just Economy Policy has affected local livelihoods and climate change, through a focus on social forestry programs⁴⁵.  Widodo scrutinises the National Agrarian Reform Program (NARP) and its impact on land redistribution⁴⁶.  Despite such initiatives, land grabs persist and Tania Murray Li explores the impacts of oil palm plantations following such acquisitions⁴⁷.  It is also worth checking out her prize-winning book Land’s End, based on two decades of research, which looks at the emergence of capitalist relations on the island of Sulawesi⁴⁸.

***References

[1] USAID. (2011). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Indonesia [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1310item1338/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[2] World Bank. (2020). World Bank Open Data. The World Bank: Working for a World Free of Poverty. https://data.worldbank.org/

[3] FAO. (2018). Increase the use of the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure among CSOs and Grassroots Organizations: Indonesia. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nationals. https://landportal.org/library/resources/increase-use-voluntary-guidelines-responsible-governance-tenure-among-csos-and-4

[4] World Population Review. (2020). Indonesia Population 2020. World Population Review. https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/indonesia-population/

[5] Daryono. (2010). The Transformation of Land Law in Indonesia: The Persistence of Pluralism. Asian Journal of Comparative Law, 5, 1–32. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-1022021932-02051180/transformation-land-law-indonesia-persistence-pluralism

Neef, A. (2016). Land Rights Matter! Anchors to Reduce Land Grabbing, Dispossession and Displacement. Brot für die Welt – Evangelischer Entwicklungsdienst Evangelisches Werk für Diakonie und Entwicklung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/mlrf2012/land-rights-matter-anchors-reduce-land-grabbing-dispossession-and

[6] Daryono. (2010). The Transformation of Land Law in Indonesia: The Persistence of Pluralism. Asian Journal of Comparative Law, 5, 1–32. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-1022021932-02051180/transformation-land-law-indonesia-persistence-pluralism

[7] FAO. (2020). Gender and Land Rights Database Country Profiles. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/en/

[8] Neef, A. (2016). Land Rights Matter! Anchors to Reduce Land Grabbing, Dispossession and Displacement. Brot für die Welt – Evangelischer Entwicklungsdienst Evangelisches Werk für Diakonie und Entwicklung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/mlrf2012/land-rights-matter-anchors-reduce-land-grabbing-dispossession-and

[9] Daryono. (2010). The Transformation of Land Law in Indonesia: The Persistence of Pluralism. Asian Journal of Comparative Law, 5, 1–32. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-1022021932-02051180/transformation-land-law-indonesia-persistence-pluralism

[10] Eng, P. van der. (2016). After 200 years, why is Indonesia’s cadastral system still incomplete? In CEH Discussion Papers (No. 046; CEH Discussion Papers). Centre for Economic History, Research School of Economics, Australian National University. https://landportal.org/library/resources/after-200-years-why-indonesias-cadastral-system-still-incomplete

Krishna, V. V., Kubitza, C., Pascual, U., & Qaim, M. (2017). Land markets, Property rights, and Deforestation: Insights from Indonesia. World Development, 99, 335–349. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpsdoiorg101016jworlddev201705018/land-markets-property-rights-and-deforestation

[11] Sahide, M. A. K., & Giessen, L. (2015). The fragmented land use administration in Indonesia – Analysing bureaucratic responsibilities influencing tropical rainforest transformation systems. Land Use Policy, 43, 96–110. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-0264-8377-doi-101016jlandusepol201411005/fragmented-land-use-administration

[12] USAID. (2011). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Indonesia [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1310item1338/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[13] Ducos, L. (2014). Importance of the traditional land-use and land-tenure systems of Waraka, Seram Island, Maluku (Working Paper 144; p. 73). CIFOR. https://landportal.org/library/resources/handle1056894563/importance-traditional-land-use-and-land-tenure-systems-waraka

USAID. (2011). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Indonesia [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1310item1338/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[14] FAO. (2020). Gender and Land Rights Database Country Profiles. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/en/

Hibatullah, T. A. (2019, February 4). Primary Land Rights in Indonesia. Smart Legal ID. https://smartlegal.id/en/smarticle/2019/02/04/primary-land-rights-in-indonesia/

[15] USAID. (2011). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Indonesia [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1310item1338/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[16] FAO. (2020). Gender and Land Rights Database Country Profiles. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/en/

Neef, A. (2016). Land Rights Matter! Anchors to Reduce Land Grabbing, Dispossession and Displacement. Brot für die Welt – Evangelischer Entwicklungsdienst Evangelisches Werk für Diakonie und Entwicklung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/mlrf2012/land-rights-matter-anchors-reduce-land-grabbing-dispossession-and

[17] Daryono. (2010). The Transformation of Land Law in Indonesia: The Persistence of Pluralism. Asian Journal of Comparative Law, 5, 1–32. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-1022021932-02051180/transformation-land-law-indonesia-persistence-pluralism

[18] Widodo, S. (2017). A Critical Review of Indonesia’s Agrarian Reform Policy. Journal of Regional and City Planning, 28(3), 204–218. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-105614jrcp20172834/critical-review-indonesia%E2%80%99s-agrarian-reform-policy

[19] USAID. (2011). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Indonesia [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1310item1338/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[20] Resosudarmo, I. A. P., Tacconi, L., Sloan, S., Hamdani, F. A. U., Subarudi, Alviya, I., & Muttaqin, M. Z. (2019). Indonesia’s land reform: Implications for local livelihoods and climate change. Forest Policy and Economics, 108, 1–14. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpsdoiorg101016jforpol201904007/indonesias-land-reform-implications-local

[21] World Population Review. (2020). Indonesia Population 2020. World Population Review. https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/indonesia-population/

[22] USAID. (2011). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Indonesia [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1310item1338/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[23] Neef, A. (2016). Land Rights Matter! Anchors to Reduce Land Grabbing, Dispossession and Displacemen. Brot für die Welt – Evangelischer Entwicklungsdienst Evangelisches Werk für Diakonie und Entwicklung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/mlrf2012/land-rights-matter-anchors-reduce-land-grabbing-dispossession-and

[24] USAID. (2011). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Indonesia [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1310item1338/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[25] FAOSTAT. (2020). FAOSTAT database. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/

[26] BPS-Statistics Indonesia. (2019). Statistical Yearbook of Indonesia 2019. Sub-directorate of Statistical Compilation and Publication. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-0126-2912-no-publikasipublication-number-032201911-katalogcatalog-1101001-0

[27] Neef, A. (2016). Land Rights Matter! Anchors to Reduce Land Grabbing, Dispossession and Displacement. Brot für die Welt – Evangelischer Entwicklungsdienst Evangelisches Werk für Diakonie und Entwicklung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/mlrf2012/land-rights-matter-anchors-reduce-land-grabbing-dispossession-and

[28] FAO. (2020). Gender and Land Rights Database Country Profiles. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/en/

USAID. (2011). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Indonesia [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1310item1338/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[29] Neef, A. (2016). Land Rights Matter! Anchors to Reduce Land Grabbing, Dispossession and Displacement. Brot für die Welt – Evangelischer Entwicklungsdienst Evangelisches Werk für Diakonie und Entwicklung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/mlrf2012/land-rights-matter-anchors-reduce-land-grabbing-dispossession-and

[30] ibid

[31] Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2020). BTI 2020 Country Report Indonesia. Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/bti-2020-country-report-indonesia

[32] Neef, A. (2016). Land Rights Matter! Anchors to Reduce Land Grabbing, Dispossession and Displacement. Brot für die Welt – Evangelischer Entwicklungsdienst Evangelisches Werk für Diakonie und Entwicklung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/mlrf2012/land-rights-matter-anchors-reduce-land-grabbing-dispossession-and

[33] USAID. (2011). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Indonesia [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1310item1338/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[34] Daryono. (2010). The Transformation of Land Law in Indonesia: The Persistence of Pluralism. Asian Journal of Comparative Law, 5, 1–32. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-1022021932-02051180/transformation-land-law-indonesia-persistence-pluralism

[35] FAO. (2020). Gender and Land Rights Database Country Profiles. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/en/

[36] USAID. (2011). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Indonesia [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1310item1338/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[37] FAO. (2020). Gender and Land Rights Database Country Profiles. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/en/

[38] ibid

[39] USAID. (2011). Property Rights and Resource Governance: Indonesia [USAID Country Profile]. USAID. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1310item1338/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile

[40] FAO. (2020). Gender and Land Rights Database Country Profiles. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/en/

[41] FAO. (2018). Increase the use of the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure among CSOs and Grassroots Organizations: Indonesia. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nationas. https://landportal.org/library/resources/increase-use-voluntary-guidelines-responsible-governance-tenure-among-csos-and-4

[42] FAO. (2019, October 28). Governance of tenure newsletter. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/tenure/newsletters/detail-events/en/c/1237304/#anchor-point5

[43] Daryono. (2010). The Transformation of Land Law in Indonesia: The Persistence of Pluralism. Asian Journal of Comparative Law, 5, 1–32. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-1022021932-02051180/transformation-land-law-indonesia-persistence-pluralism

[44] Sahide, M. A. K., & Giessen, L. (2015). The fragmented land use administration in Indonesia – Analysing bureaucratic responsibilities influencing tropical rainforest transformation systems. Land Use Policy, 43, 96–110. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-0264-8377-doi-101016jlandusepol201411005/fragmented-land-use-administration

[45] Resosudarmo, I. A. P., Tacconi, L., Sloan, S., Hamdani, F. A. U., Subarudi, Alviya, I., & Muttaqin, M. Z. (2019). Indonesia’s land reform: Implications for local livelihoods and climate change. Forest Policy and Economics, 108, 1–14. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpsdoiorg101016jforpol201904007/indonesias-land-reform-implications-local

[46] Widodo, S. (2017). A Critical Review of Indonesia’s Agrarian Reform Policy. Journal of Regional and City Planning, 28(3), 204–218. https://landportal.org/library/resources/doi-105614jrcp20172834/critical-review-indonesia%E2%80%99s-agrarian-reform-policy

[47] Li, T. M. (2018). After the land grab: Infrastructural violence and the “Mafia System” in Indonesia’s oil palm plantation zones. Geoforum, 96, 328–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.10.012

[48] Li, T. M. (2014). Land’s End: Capitalist Relations on an Indigenous Frontier. Duke University Press Books